CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are chemical substances found in food that are required by the body to provide
energy, give the body structure, and help regulate chemical processes. There are six classes
of nutrients:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Water
5. Vitamins
6. Minerals

Nutrients can be further classified as

 Macro nutrients: Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macro
nutrients. There are three classes of macro nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.
 Micro nutrients: Micro nutrients are nutrients required by the body in smaller
amounts. Micro nutrients include all of the essential minerals and vitamins.

1. CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and the major
functional constituents of living cells.
 Carbohydrates have the empirical formula (CHO)n.
 Carbohydrates, along with lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and other compounds are
known as biomolecules because they are closely associated with living organisms.
 Carbohydrates, or saccharides(saccharo is Greek for “sugar”) are polyhydroxy aldehydes
or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis.

CLASSIFICATION OF CHARBOHYDRATES
1. Monosaccharides
The word “Monosaccharides” derived from the Greek word “Mono” means Single and
“saccharide” means sugar.
Monosaccharides are simple sugars which contain single unit of sugar. They are sweet in
taste and soluble in water. They are crystalline in nature.
Eg; glucose, fructose, galactose

2. Disaccharides
Disaccharides are two sugar molecules joined together
Eg:
 Lactose (milk sugar) it is composed of galactose and glucose.
 Maltose (Malt sugar) is composed of 2 molecules of glucose.
  Sucrose (Table sugar, Cane sugar, Beet sugar) is composed of glucose and fructose-
Sucrose: the most widely occurring disaccharide of ordinary table sugar.

3. Oligosaccharides
Oligosaccharides consist of short chains of monosaccharide units, or residues, joined by
characteristic linkages called glycosidic bonds.
 It contains 3-9 sugar molecules.
 Major source of energy used by brain.
 Regulate normal sugar level- hypoglycemia
 Maintain bowel functions.
 Regulates blood pressure.
 Glycoprotein and lipoproteins maintain shape of body.
 Eg; raffinose and stachyose

4. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides contain hundreds or thousands of carbohydrate units.

Homopolysaccharide- a polysaccharide is made up of one type of monosaccharide unit

 Glycogen: It is made up of a large chain of molecules. It is found in animals and
fungi.
 Cellulose: The cell wall of the plants is made up of cellulose.
 Starch: It is formed by the condensation of amylose and amylopectin. It is found
largely in plants, fruits, seeds, etc.
 Dextrin: These are partially hydrolyzed product of starch.

Heteropolysaccharide- a polysaccharide is made up of more than one type of

monosaccharide unit
 Heparin: It is made up of D-glucuronic acid, L-iduronic acid, N-sulfo-D-
glucosamine and is largely distributed in mast cells and blood.
 Gamma globulin: N-acetyl-hexosamine, D-mannose, D-galactose are the component
sugars of this polysaccharide. It is found in the blood.
 Keratin sulfate: glycose amino glycans, found in cornea, cartilage and bone
 Dermatan sulfate: glycose amino glycans, found in skin

FUNCTIONS OF CHO

 Provide energy: - each gram of CHO provides 4 calories - body needs a constant energy -
stored in the liver and muscle for use as needed - stored form is called glycogen
 Protein sparing action:
 Normal fat metabolism
 Provide fiber
 Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown of protein
molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
 They help in the regulation of blood glucose.
 They provide the carbon skeleton for the synthesis of some non-essential amino acids.

SOURCES OF CHO
 Diary and d iary products: Milk, yogurt, ice creams, etc.
 Fruits: whole fruits, fruit juices
 Grains : Rice, breads, cereals, etc.
 Legumes: Beans
 Starchy vegetables : potatoes, corn
 Sweets and Added sugars: high-fructose corn syrup or another form of sugar for added
flavor.
 Beverages: Wine, beer and liqueurs

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES

 RDA of CHO for an individual is 45-60% of daily total calories.

 If an individual takes 2000 calories a day b/w 900-1300 should be from CHO.
 That translates to b/w 225-335g of carbohydrates a day

Types of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are made up of one or two sugar molecules and are quickly broken
down by the body. They are often referred to as “bad” carbohydrates because they can cause
a rapid increase in blood sugar levels. Simple carbohydrates are found in foods such as table
sugar, honey, candy, and soft drinks.
Complex Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates are made up of many sugar molecules and take longer to break
down. They are often referred to as “good” carbohydrates because they provide a slow,
steady release of energy. Complex carbohydrates are found in foods such as whole grains,
fruits, vegetables, and legumes.

EFFECTS OF COOKING ON STARCH

1. Gelatinisation
Gelatinisation is a process in which starch granules absorb water and swell, resulting in the
thickening of a liquid. This process occurs when starch is exposed to heat in the presence of
water. As the temperature rises, the starch granules start to absorb water and swell,
eventually bursting and releasing their contents into the surrounding liquid. This causes the
liquid to thicken and form a gel-like substance.
Gelatinisation is an important process in cooking as it provides the desired texture to many
food preparations such as sauces, gravies, and soups. It is also responsible for the smooth
and creamy texture of custards and puddings.

2. Retrogradation
Retrogradation, on the other hand, is the opposite of gelatinisation. It is a process in which
the gel-like substance formed during gelatinisation loses its water-holding capacity and
becomes more rigid. Retrogradation occurs when the starch molecules in the gel reorganize
and form a crystalline structure. This process happens over time, and as a result, the gel
becomes hard and loses its smooth texture.
Retrogradation is responsible for the firming of stale bread and the gritty texture of leftover
cooked rice. In many cases, retrogradation is an undesirable outcome, and food scientists and
chefs work to minimize its effects to maintain the quality of food.
Factors Affecting Gelatinisation and Retrogradation
Several factors can affect the gelatinisation and retrogradation of carbohydrates. The most
important ones are:
 Type of starch: Different types of starch have varying gelatinisation and retr ogradation
properties. For example, waxy starches gelatinize at lower temperatures and retrograde
less compared to normal starches.
 Tem perature: The temperature at which the starch is cooked affects the extent of
gelatinisation and retrogradation. Higher temperatures lead to more extensive
gelatinisation but also faster retrogradation.
 pH: The pH of the cooking medium can also affect the gelatinisation and retrogradation
of starch. For example, a highly acidic or alkaline medium can hinder gelatinisation.
 Presence of other ingredients: The presence of other ingredients such as fats, proteins,
and sugars can also affect the gelatinisation and retrogradation of starch.

USES OF CARBOHYDRATES IN FOOD PREPARATION

Starch from various sources in its natural form is used as a thickening and gelling agent in a
wide range of products. It is the primary thickening agent in soups and roux-based mother
sauces such as bechamel, veloute, and espagnole sauces. These sauces are used for
casseroles and vegetable and meat-based preparations, salads, and pastas. It is used in
custard sauce, puddings, pie fillings, and souffles.
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), pectins, gums, and alginates have varied applications in
their natural and modified forms
Commercially, starch derivatives are used for an exhaustive range of products.
Sugars have a wide range of uses apart from sweetening and energy giving. Sugar cookery
involves controlled formation of crystals which has a direct bearing on the texture of
crystalline candies such as fondants and fudges.

Some uses of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates Uses
Unmodified starch
 Refined flour  Thickening sauces and soups specially used in the
 Rice form of a roux
 Arrowroot  Thickening soups and rice pudding (phirni)
 Tapioca  For clear sauces, e.g., lemon sauce and as a glaze for
 Potato fruit
 High amylose starch  Flans
 Waxy rice flour  Used for pudding
 Corn flour  Used to thicken soups which could curdle at high
temperatures
 Edible films for wrapping candies
 White sauces and starch-thickened pudding which
need to be stored frozen and thawed before cooking
 Thickening soups, sauces, and gravies, anti-caking
 agent

Modified starch
 Starch phosphates  White sauces in cook-freeze operations
 Oxidized starch  Products which need soft gels
 Thin boiling starch  Gum drops
 Pregelatinized starch  Instant pudding and soup mixes
 Cross-linked starch  Thickeners and stabilizer in salad dressings

Other polysaccharides
 Cellulose  Powdered form used to provide bulk in weight-
 Cellulose reducing foods
compounds  Thickening and creaming agents
 Dextrins  In coffee extracts
 Pectin  Setting agent in jams, jellies, and marmalades
 Gums  Thickening and gelling agent; stabilization of ice
 Seaweed extracts cream, cheese, and chocolate milk
(algin and agar)  Prevent ice crystal formation in ice cream, stabilize
cream substitutes, modify crystal size in sugar
confections, and are used in weight-reduction diets
Sugars
 Glucose  Used as a humectant in confectionery
 Caramel  Used as a colouring and flavouring agent in
 Invert sugar christmas cake, soup mixes, instant puddings, etc.
 Prevents formation of sugar crystals in preserves and
fondant

TYPES OF STARCHES

1. Native Starches
These are unmodified starches extracted directly from plants. They are widely used for basic
thickening and gelling purposes.

Sources:

 Corn
 Wheat
 Rice
 Potato
 Tapioca

Applications:

 Sauces
 Soups
 Baked goods
Characteristics:

 Generally less stable under heat, shear, or acidic conditions

2. Modified Starches

Modified starches are chemically, physically, or enzymatically treated to enhance their

performance and stability.

Types of Modification:

 Pre-gelatinized Starches: Pre-cooked and dried, allowing them to thicken without

heating (e.g., instant pudding).
 Cross-linked Starches: Increased stability against heat, shear, or acid (e.g., canned
soups).
 Oxidized Starches: Improved clarity and texture (e.g., dressings, clear sauces)

Applications:

 Processed foods
 Dairy products
 Confectionery

Advantages:

 Greater stability
 Improved shelf life
 Tailored functionality

3. Resistant Starches

These are not digested in the small intestine, functioning like dietary fiber. They are used to
enhance the health benefits of food

Types:

 RS1: Found in whole grains and seeds

 RS2: Found in raw potatoes and green bananas
 RS3: Retrograded starch (e.g., cooled cooked rice or pasta)
 RS4: Chemically modified for specific applications

Applications:

 Health foods
 High-fiber snacks
 Nutritional supplements

Benefits:
 Supports gut health
 Lowers blood sugar spikes
 Aids in weight management

4. Functional Starches

Functional starches are developed for specific roles beyond thickening, such as providing
texture, fat replacement, or calorie reduction.

Examples:

 Hi-maize starch: Resistant starch used in high-fiber products.

 Waxy starches: High in amylopectin, offering excellent clarity and freeze-thaw stability.

Applications:

 Gluten-free products
 Low-calorie desserts
 Smooth-textured sauces

5. Specialty Starches

These are niche starches designed for specific industrial or culinary needs.

Examples:

 Arrowroot starch: Known for its light texture and clarity, often used in sauces.
 Sago starch: Extracted from palm, used in puddings and noodles.

Applications:

 Ethnic foods
 Artisan baking
 High-end confectionery

Choosing the Right Starch:

The choice of starch depends on:

 Processing Conditions: Heat, pH, and mechanical stress.

 Desired Texture: Creamy, firm, or gel-like.
 Shelf Life Needs: Stability over time, including freeze-thaw cycles.

Nutritional Goals: Calorie control or fiber enrichment.

2. PROTEINS
Proteins are large molecules composed of chains of amino acids, which are simple subunits
made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins. Proteins are the mixed polymer of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Classification of Proteins
1. Based on Nutritional value
2. Based on Chemical composition
3. Based on Functions
4. Based on Shape & Structure

Classification based on Nutritional value

 Complete Proteins
All essential amino acids present in proper proportion Eg: Egg protein, Milk proteins, Fish,
meat, cheese
 Partially complete proteins
Proteins do not contain all the essential amino acids in required amount. So they are capable
of maintaining life but cannot promote growth
Eg: gliadin of Wheat
 Incomplete Proteins
These are deficient in lots of essential amino acids. Cannot support expected growth and
health completely
Eg: Zein in maize and gelatin

Classification based on Chemical composition

 Simple proteins: Simple proteins are made up of amino acid subunits joined together by
peptide bonds. When hydrolyzed by enzymes, simple proteins yield only the amino acids
from which they are comprised of.
E.g.: albumins, globulins, glutelins and albuminoid.

 Conjugated proteins: A conjugated protein is a protein which are combined with a non-
protein molecule
E.g. Nucleoprotein, Phosphoprotein, Lipoprotein, Haemoglobin

 Derived proteins: They are derivatives or degraded products of simple and conjugated
proteins.
E.g., proteoses, peptones, polypeptides, dipeptides
Classification based on Function
 Catalytic Protein: These are enzyme which may be simple or conjugated.
 Regulatory or Hormonal protein: Many protein and peptide acts as Hormone. Eg:
Insulin, Growth Hormone 
 Structural Protein: Contribute to the structure of the tissue. Eg: Collagen, Elastin
 Transport Protein: Serve to carry substances. Eg: Transferrin carry Iron, Hemoglobin
carry Oxygen 
 Immune Protein: Serve in defense mechanism Eg: Immunoglobulin, IgG, IgA, IgM,
IgD,IgE 
 Contractile Protein: Takes part in the muscle contrection. Eg: Actin, Myosin
 Genetic Protein: Protein present in combination with nucleic acid. Eg: Histone
 Storage Protein: To store protein for nutritional purposes. Eg: Casein in Milk, Gliadin in
Wheat

Classification based on Structure of Proteins

1. Primary- the covalent linkages of the proteins

2. Secondary- the linear peptide chains fold either into an alpha-helical structure(coiled) or a
beta-pleated structure(sheets) which contain hydrogen bonds.

3. Tertiary- The arrangement and interconnection of proteins into specific loops and bends
forms the tertiary structures. This structure contains hydrogen, ionic and disulfide bonds.

4. Quarternary- this structure is proteins containing more than one peptide

[Link] is made up of four protein molecules: two identical α subunits and two
identical β subunits
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN
 Maintenance wear and tear it is essential for continuous maintenance of all the cells in
the body.
 Growth - protein is required for the formation and growth of all body cell
 Maintains Proper ph- Proteins act as a buffer system, helping your body maintain proper
pH values of the blood and other bodily fluids.
 Balances Fluids- Proteins in your blood maintain the fluid balance between your blood
and the surrounding tissues.
 Strength Immune Health- Proteins form antibodies to protect your body from foreign
invaders, such as disease-causing bacteria and viruses.
 Transports and Stores Nutrients- Some proteins transport nutrients throughout your entire
body, while others store them.
 Provides Energy- Protein can serve as a valuable energy source but only in situations of
fasting, exhaustive exercise or inadequate calorie intake.

SOURCES OF PROTEIN
 Whole Eggs. Eggs are a common part of daily diet globally
 Chicken/Turkey. Amongst poultry meat, turkey and chicken are the most popular all
around the world.
 Paneer/Cottage Cheese.
 Lentils and Pulses.
 Red Meat.
 Fish.
 Soya

RDA OF PROTEIN
The DRI (Dietary Reference Intake) is 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight.
This amounts to 56 grams per day for the average sedentary man. 46 grams per day for the
average sedentary woman.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON PROTEIN

Denaturation: When proteins are exposed to heat, light and/or change of pH, structural
changes occur. These changes in structure of proteins are known as denaturation. It leads to
change in solubility of proteins. It may be reversible, if conditions which cause it are mild,
but mostly the changes which occur are irreversible.

Coagulation: Proteins coagulate on exposure to heat and/or change of pH. All proteins are
firstly denatured and then coagulated by heat. The coagulation occurs between 65℃ and
90℃ Coagulation means curdling, formation of a mass, congealing or solidifying. For
example, when egg is boiled or scrambled, the egg proteins coagulate and a solid mass if
formed from raw egg, which is a fluid. When milk is incubated with curd, the liquid milk is
transformed to curd, due to coagulation of milk protein by the lactic acid formed.

COMMERCIAL USE OF PROTEIN

Proteins are an essential component of a balanced diet and play a vital role in the human
body’s growth and development. They are also widely used in the food industry, where their
functional properties make them essential ingredients in a range of food products. In this
blog, we’ll explore the commercial uses of proteins in different food preparations, including
egg gels, gelatin gels, cakes, confectionary items, meringues, souffles, custards, soups, and
curries.
Egg Gels
Eggs are a rich source of protein and are used extensively in the food industry. One of the
most common uses of eggs in food preparation is to create egg gels. Egg gels are formed
when egg proteins are heated and coagulated, resulting in a solid gel-like substance. Egg gels
are used in a variety of products, including baked goods, custards, and quiches.
Gelatin Gels
Gelatin is a protein derived from collagen, which is found in animal bones, skin,
and connective tissue. When gelatin is mixed with water and heated, it forms a gel-like
substance that is widely used in the food industry. Gelatin gels are used in a range of
products, including desserts, jellies, and marshmallows.
Cakes
Cakes are a popular dessert item and are made with a variety of ingredients, including flour,
sugar, and eggs. Eggs play a vital role in cake preparation, as they act as a binding agent and
help to provide structure and texture. The proteins in eggs also contribute to the flavor and
color of cakes.
Confectionary Items
Confectionary items such as chocolates, candies, and toffees often contain proteins in the
form of milk and whey. Milk proteins are used as a source of protein and to provide texture
and flavor to confectionary items.
Meringues
Meringues are a dessert item made from egg whites and sugar. The proteins in egg whites
provide structure and stability to the meringue, resulting in a light and fluffy texture.
Meringues are used in a range of desserts, including pies, tarts, and pavlovas.
Souffles
Souffles are a light and fluffy dish that is made with a base of egg yolks, butter, and flour,
and a light and fluffy egg white mixture. The proteins in the egg whites provide the structure
and stability needed for the souffle to rise and hold its shape.
Custards
Custards are a dessert item made with eggs, sugar, and milk. The proteins in the eggs help to
thicken and set the custard, resulting in a smooth and creamy texture. Custards are used in a
range of desserts, including pies, tarts, and crème brulee.
Soups and Curries
Proteins are also used in a range of savory dishes, including soups and curries. Meats
and legumes are rich sources of protein and are often used as a base for soups and curries.
The proteins in these ingredients provide the bulk and texture needed for these dishes, as
well as contributing to the overall flavor.

PROETIN RICH FOODS

1. Animal-Based Protein Sources

Meat:

 Chicken breast (31g per 100g)

 Lean beef (26g per 100g)
 Pork loin (27g per 100g)
 Lamb (25g per 100g)

Fish and Seafood:

 Salmon (25g per 100g)

 Tuna (30g per 100g)
 Shrimp (24g per 100g)
 Sardines (25g per 100g)

Eggs:

 Whole egg (6g per large egg)

 Egg whites (3.6g per egg)

Dairy Products:

 Milk (3.4g per 100ml)

 Greek yogurt (10g per 100g)
 Cheese (20–25g per 100g, depending on type)
 Cottage cheese (11g per 100g)

2. Plant-Based Protein Sources

Legumes and Pulses:

 Lentils (9g per 100g, cooked)

 Chickpeas (8g per 100g, cooked)
 Black beans (8g per 100g, cooked)
 Soybeans (12g per 100g, cooked)

Grains:
 Quinoa (4g per 100g, cooked)
 Brown rice (3g per 100g, cooked)
 Oats (11g per 100g, dry)

Nuts and Seeds:

 Almonds (21g per 100g)

 Peanuts (25g per 100g)
 Chia seeds (17g per 100g)
 Flaxseeds (18g per 100g)

Soy Products:

 Tofu (8g per 100g)

 Tempeh (19g per 100g)
 Edamame (11g per 100g, cooked)

FUNCTIONLA PROPERTIES OF PROTEIN RICH FOODS

1. Gelatin

Gelatin is a partially degraded protein obtained from collagen (found in skin, ligaments,
bones).
Contains amino acids with high affinity for water → forms firm gels at low temperatures.
Preparation: Soak in cold water → heat to dissolve → form a sol. Cooling converts sol to
elastic gel.
Gelation: Gelatin is hydrophilic; water molecules bind to polar groups forming a network
trapping liquid. Gel melts at 28°C and resets on cooling (reversible).

Gel strength depends on:

 Concentration: 1–2% forms firm gel; excess leads to rubbery gel.

 Sugar: Increases gelatin requirement.

 Acid: Improves clarity, lowers gel formation temperature.

 Fruits: Certain fruits (pineapple, figs) have enzymes that prevent gelation unless
cooked.

2. Milk

Milk is a solution of sugar lactose, and water soluble vitamins and minerals. It is a colloidal
dispersion of proteins and emulsion of fat in water (87%).

Protein types:

 Casein (alpha, beta, kappa)

  Serum/whey proteins (albumin, globulin).

 Effect of Heat on Milk Proteins

1. Heat denatures and coagulates the whey proteins which settle to the bottom
2. Skin forms on surface due to evaporation and concentration of casein, which blocks
the calcium salts and milk fat
3. Browning in condensed milk due to Maillard reaction (lactose + proteins).

 Effect of Acid on Milk

1. Fresh milk has a pH of 7.6
2. Acid reduces pH, destabilizes casein micelles → curd formation (e.g., paneer).
3. Fruit acids curdle milk.
4. Yoghurt forms when bacteria convert lactose → lactic acid

3. Eggs
 Egg White
Contains 9 proteins (ovalbumin, conalbumin, fibrous proteins).
Lysozyme gives viscosity; avidin in raw egg white binds biotin, making it unavailable.
 Egg Yolk
Many protein are present as lipoprotein. Some lipoprotein contains lecithin, which is a
natural emulsifying agent. Cholesterol is also present in the yolk.

 Effect of Heat
Most egg proteins denature and coagulate when heated. Egg white coagulates at 60–65°C;
yolk at 65–70°C. Overheating shrinks/toughens proteins.

 Egg Cookery
 Boiled eggs: prolonged cooking → greenish grey ring due to the ferrous sulphide
formed by the iron of the yolk reacting with the hydrogen sulphide liberated by
sulphur containing protein.
 Poached eggs: vinegar speeds coagulation.
 Fried eggs: high temperature toughens protein and develops a brown edge.
 Scrambled eggs: heating with milk gives soft curds.

4. Meat

Meat contains 15–20% high-quality protein, fat (5–40%), minerals, B-vitamins.

Muscle structure:

Muscle → bundles of fibres → myofibrils → myofilaments (actin and myosin). Connective

tissue: mainly collagen with some elastin; collagen converts to gelatin on cooking → tender
meat.

Marbling: fat deposited in connective tissue; affected by age, breed diet.

Colour Changes
 Determined by myoglobin:

Myoglobin (purplish red)

Oxymyoglobin (bright red)

Metmyoglobin (brown)

Oxidation, bacteria, and heat cause colour changes.

Cooking forms hemichrome, causing greyish-brown colour

[Link]
 Fat usually means any ester of fatty acids and glycerols.
 Fats and oils are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They
are collectively known as Lipids
 The term lipid is applied to a group of naturally occurring substances characterized by
their insolubility in water, greasy feel and solubility in organic solvent like ether,
chloroform, benzene or other fat solvents.

Fatty acids: Fatty acids consist of chain of carbon Atoms with a methyl group at one end
and a carboxyl group at the other end. Over 40 different fatty acids are found in nature. Fatty
acids are classified based on length of carbon chains into 3 groups
 Short chain with less than 8 carbons
 Medium chain with 10-14 carbons
 Long chain with 16-24 carbons.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS

Lipids are classified based on composition

1. Simple lipids: Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids with certain alcohols. They are usually
further classified according to the nature of the alcohols. e.g. Fats and oils, waxes
2. Compound lipids: Compound lipids are composed of fatty acids, alcohols, and other
substances like phosphorus or proteins.
E.g.; Phospholipids, Sphingolipids, Glycolipids
3. Derived lipids: Derived lipids are substances liberated during hydrolysis of simple and
compound lipids which still retain the properties of lipids.

CLASSIFCATION BASED ON THE DEGREE OF SATURATION

Lipids can be classified based on the degree of saturation of their fatty acids, which are long
chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached:
Saturated fatty acids: Have no double bonds in their carbon chain. They are found in animal
products like beef and dairy. Saturated fats have higher melting points than unsaturated fats and
have been linked to an increased risk of heart disease.
Unsaturated fatty acids: An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one
double bond within the fatty acid chain.
i. Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA): A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains
one double bond. Monounsaturated fats are good fats. A diet high in MUFA can reduce blood
cholesterol levels, lowers risk of heart disease, stroke and breast cancer, reduces pain in
rheumatoid arthritis and helps in weight loss. Foods which contain MUFA (Oleic acid) are
avocados, olives, olive oil, peanut butter and peanut oil. It is also known as omega-9 fatty acid.
ii. Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA): A fatty acid is polyunsaturated if it contains more than
one double bond. They are of 2 types, namely Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.

FUNCTIONS
 Essential constituent of the membrane of every cell- fat is present not only in the outer
membranes of cells but also in the internal membranes of the nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum and the other membranes bound organelles.
 Energy reserve: fat is the primary form in which energy is stored in the body. Some fat
can be stored within most cells but the body also contain large numbers of specialised
cells, adipocytes, within adipose tissue.
 Absorption of fat soluble vitamins: fat soluble vitamins like A,D,E,K are absorbed in the
body through fat.
 Regulator of body functions: As an essential components of all cell membranes, fat
indirectly help to regulate both the flow of material into and out of the cell and change in
cell size and shape such as those involved in growth.
 Specific long chain omega-6 and omega-3 unsaturated fatty acid also act as the
precursors of a range of hormone
 Insulators: Deposits of fat beneath the skin known as the subcutaneous fat, serves as an
insulating material for the body and is effective at preventing heat loss.

SOURCES

 Nuts and oil seeds are excellent sources of fat.

 The visible fats are butter, ghee and oil.
 Invisible fats are present in cereals, pulses, oil seed, milk and egg.
 Fruits and vegetables are poor source of fat

REFINED OILS
Oils and fats do not occur free in nature. They occur in animal tissues and in seeds and fruits
from which they are isolated. The extracted oils are crude and contain many constituents like
free fatty acids, unsaponifiable matter, gums, waxes, mucilaginous matter, and variety of
colouring matter, metallic contaminants and undesirable odour producing constituents. In
refining these constituents are removed by the following steps:
 Suspended particles are removed by filtration or centrifugation.
 Free fatty acids are removed by alkali treatment.
 Any remaining free fatty acids are removed by neutralisation.
 Pigments are removed by bleaching using adsorbents like activated earth or carbon and
sometimes chemical bleaching agents.
 The oil is finally deodorized by injecting steam through the heated fat under reduced
pressure to obtain refined oil.
HYDROGENATION –
Plant oils contain a large percentage of unsaturated fatty acids and hence have a tendency to
become rancid. These unsaturated glycerides in oil can be converted to more saturated
glycerides by the addition of hydrogen. This process is known as hydrogenation.
Hydrogenated fat is manufactured from vegetable oils by the addition of molecular hydrogen
to the double bonds in the unsaturated fatty acids in the presence of nickel. The double bonds
take up hydrogen and saturated fatty acids are obtained. By this process, liquid fats can be
converted to semi solid and solid fats for use as shortening in the preparation of biscuits,
cakes and butter substitutes.
Hydrogenation is of great economic importance because it allows oils to be converted into
fats, which have better keeping quality. As hydrogenated fats are prepared from refined
deodourised oils, the resulting fats are odourless and colourless and blend well in several
food preparations.
Vanaspathi:
Hydrogenated oil in India is known as vanaspathi. It is manufactured by hydrogenating
refined groundnut oil or a mixture of groundnut oil with other edible vegetable oils.
According to vanaspathi control order, the melting point of vanaspathi should be between
31°C and 37° C and it should contain 5 percent sesame oil and should be fortified with
vitamin A
Margarine :
Margarine is often used as a substitute for butter. It is made from vegetable oils or a mixture
of vegetable and animal fat by hydrogenation. It is then blended with cultured skim milk and
salt. The fats most commonly used in the manufacture of margarine are cotton seed oil,
soyabean oil, corn oil, groundnut oil, coconut oil and meat fat. Additional additives may
include diacetyl for butter flavour, sodium benzoate for preservation, mono and diglycerides
or lecithin for emulsification, yellow colouring matter and vitamin A and D.

WINTERIZATION : some cooking oil become cloudy when they are stored in the
reftrigerator. This occurs because some of the triglyceride molecules in the oil have higher
melting points than other molecules in the mixture and crystallize or become solid at the
lower temperature. In manufacturing oils intended to be used primarily for the making of
salad dressings, a winterizing process is applied. In this process, the temperature of the oil is
lowered to a point at which the higher melting triglycerides crystallize. Then the oil is
filtered to remove the crystal the remaining oil has a lower melting point and does not
crystallize at refrigerator temperature. It is referred to as salad oil. Removing the solid
particles is called winterization

LEAVENING : When fats are creamed with sugars as in preparation of cake, butters, they
help to incorporate air into the batter making it tight and foamy. On baking the protein films
coagulate enclosing the air and making the end products light in texture and soft in
mouthfeel. In biscuits since foaming is not required the fat is rubbed into the flour gently to
provide slight aeration to impart a light crisp texture.

SHORTENING : Fats provide a crumbly texture to food by foaming a film around the
starch and protein particles in flours preventing the formation of long gluten strands in them.
This accomplished when fat is rubbed into a flour gently using the tips of the fingers only.
Such treatment to flours before dough formation makes products soft and tender or short
after cooking. This effect is called shortening and is used for making biscuits, cakes pie
bases, pastry products etc. where a golden color and crisp texture is required through baking
and frying.

RANCIDITY

Rancidity refers to the spoilage of fats and oils in food, leading to unpleasant taste, odor,
and sometimes harmful effects. It occurs when fats and oils undergo chemical changes due to
exposure to air, light, moisture, or microbial activity.

Types of Rancidity

1. Oxidative Rancidity

 Occurs when unsaturated fats react with oxygen.

 Leads to the formation of peroxides and other harmful compounds.
 Common in foods like oils, nuts, and seeds.

2. Hydrolytic Rancidity

 Happens when water breaks down triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids.
 Causes off-flavors and odors.
 Often occurs in butter, dairy products, and frozen meats.

3. Microbial Rancidity

 Caused by microorganisms like bacteria or fungi breaking down fats.

 Produces unpleasant byproducts and is common in poorly stored food.

Causes of Rancidity

 Exposure to oxygen (oxidation).

 High temperatures.
 Light exposure.
 Moisture (hydrolysis).
 Microbial contamination.

Prevention of Rancidity

Proper Storage:

 Store oils and fats in airtight containers.

 Keep them in cool, dark places.
 Refrigerate perishable items like butter and cheese.

Use of Antioxidants:

 Natural: Vitamin E (tocopherol), ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).

 Synthetic: Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT).
Avoid Overheating:-Minimize reuse of cooking oils to prevent degradation.

Vacuum Packaging:- Reduces exposure to oxygen and extends shelf life.

REVERSION

Reversion is a term used in food science to describe the slight off-flavors that develop in
edible oils and fats, particularly those with a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids.
Unlike full rancidity, reversion occurs early in the oxidative process and is less intense, but it
can still affect the flavor and quality of food.

Key Characteristics of Reversion

1. Mild Flavor Change:

 Often described as a "beany" or "grassy" taste, especially in soybean oil.

 The change is subtle but detectable in sensitive foods.

2. Early Stage of Oxidation:

 Occurs before oils or fats become rancid.

 Triggered by low levels of oxidation.

3. Affects Unsaturated Oils:

 Common in oils rich in linoleic acid (e.g., soybean, sunflower, and canola oils).
 Polyunsaturated fatty acids are more prone to oxidation.

Causes of Reversion:

1. Exposure to Oxygen: Initiates oxidation in unsaturated fats.

2. Heat: Accelerates oxidative reactions.
3. Light: Promotes photochemical reactions in oils.
4. Metal Contamination: Traces of metals like iron and copper can act as catalysts.

Prevention of Reversion:

Storage Conditions:

 Store oils in cool, dark, and dry places.

 Use opaque or dark-colored containers to reduce light exposure.

Antioxidants:-Adding natural (e.g., Vitamin E) or synthetic antioxidants can delay

oxidation.

Proper Handling:

 Avoid prolonged exposure to air during storage and use.

  Minimize heat exposure, especially during frying or cooking.

Processing Improvements:-Manufacturers often deodorize or refine oils to reduce

susceptibility to reversion.

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON FATS AND OILS

1. Physical Effects

Melting:

 Solid fats (e.g., butter, lard) melt into a liquid at their melting points.
 The melting point depends on the type and saturation of fats (saturated fats melt at
higher temperatures than unsaturated fats).

Smoke Point:

 The smoke point of an oil is the temperature at which it starts to smoke and break
down. When an oil exceeds its smoke point, it can create harmful compounds and a
burnt taste in your food.
 Heating oils beyond their smoke point causes them to break down, releasing visible
smoke.
 Common smoke points:
 Olive oil: ~190–220°C (374–428°F)
 Canola oil: ~200–240°C (392–464°F)
 Butter: ~150°C (302°F)
 Smoking indicates degradation and the release of harmful compounds.

2. Chemical Effects

Oxidation:

 Heat accelerates the reaction of fats with oxygen, forming peroxides and aldehydes.
 This contributes to rancidity and the loss of nutritional quality.

Hydrolysis:

 High heat can break down triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol.
 ProlongSed hydrolysis produces acrolein, a toxic compound with a sharp, acrid odor.

Polymerization:

 At very high temperatures (e.g., frying), unsaturated fats can form polymers.
 These polymers can create a sticky residue and reduce oil quality.

Trans Fat Formation:

 High heat can cause unsaturated fats to convert into trans fats, which are harmful to
cardiovascular health.
3. Nutritional Effects

Loss of Nutrients:

 Heat-sensitive vitamins (e.g., Vitamin E) and antioxidants in oils degrade at high

temperatures.
 This reduces the health benefits of oils like olive or flaxseed oil.

Degradation of Healthy Fats:

o Polyunsaturated fats (e.g., in vegetable oils) are particularly vulnerable to heat,

losing their beneficial properties and forming harmful byproducts.

4. Safety Concerns

Production of Harmful Compounds:

 Overheating oils can produce acrylamide (from starchy foods cooked in oil) and other
toxic compounds.
 Prolonged high-heat cooking can generate free radicals, which are linked to oxidative
stress and inflammation.

Reused Oil Risks:

 Repeatedly heating oils (e.g., for deep frying) increases the accumulation of harmful
compounds like aldehydes and trans fats.

COMMERCIAL USES OF FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils are used in the food industry because of their ability to:
1. Increase tenderness and make the product short.
2. Form emulsions
3. Spread and be plastic
4. Fry or cook food
5. Get creamed and form foams
6. Impart flavour, aroma, and color to food
Fats available in the market are specially manufactured for a variety of applications. Separate
hydrogenated fats are available for each of the following:
1. Crispness of biscuits
2. Puff pastry for excellent layer separation, i.e. highly plastic variety available as vanaspati
or as margarine.
3. Soft and tender cakes with high volume.
4. Softer bread with easy dough handling.
5. Cream filling for cakes and biscuits
6. Crunchy cookies and biscuits
7. Easy release of baked products from the baking pan