📚 Unit III: Dictionaries and Functions

🔑 Dictionaries
A dictionary in Python is an unordered, mutable collection
that stores data as key:value pairs. Keys must be unique and
immutable (e.g., strings, numbers, tuples).
1. Introduction and Accessing Values
 Creation: Defined by enclosing key-value pairs in curly

braces ({}).
Python
student_info = {
"roll_no": 101,
"name": "Alice",
"course": "MCA"
}
 Accessing:

o Square Brackets: dict[key] $\rightarrow$ Raises a

KeyError if the key is not found.

Python
print(student_info["name"]) # Output: Alice
o get() method: [Link](key, default) $\rightarrow$

Returns the value or a specified default (or None),

preventing a crash.
Python
print(student_info.get("city", "N/A")) # Output: N/A
2. Working with Dictionaries
 Adding/Updating: Use assignment with the key.

Python
student_info["city"] = "Noida" # Adds a new key
student_info["roll_no"] = 102 # Updates existing key
 Removing:
 o del dict[key]: Deletes the item by key.
o [Link](key): Removes the item and returns its value.

o [Link](): Empties the dictionary.

3. Properties and Functions

Property/Function Description Example
Returns the
number of len(student_info) $\
len(dict)
key-value rightarrow$ 4
pairs.
Returns a
[Link]() view object of student_info.keys()
all keys.
Returns a
[Link]() view object of student_info.values()
all values.
Returns a
view object of
[Link]() student_info.items()
all items (key-
value tuples).
Merges dict2
[Link](dict2) [Link](d2)
into dict1.

⚙️Functions
A function is a reusable block of code that performs a specific
task.
1. Defining & Calling a Function
  Defining: Use the def keyword.
 Calling: Use the function name followed by parentheses ().
Python
def calculate_area(length, width): # length, width are
parameters
return length * width

area = calculate_area(5, 10) # 5, 10 are arguments

print(area) # Output: 50
2. Passing Arguments and Data Types
Python uses Pass by Object Reference.
 Immutable Types (int, string, tuple): Modifications inside

the function create a new local object; the original object

remains unchanged.
 Mutable Types (list, dictionary): Modifying the object in-

place (e.g., [Link]()) changes the original object

outside the function.
3. Different Types of Arguments
Argument
Description Example
Type
Matched by their
Positional func(10, 20)
order.
Matched by
Keyword name; order func(b=20, a=10)
doesn't matter.
Assigned a
Default default value in def func(a, b=5): ...
the definition.
 Argument
Description Example
Type
Collects non-
Arbitrary
keyword
Positional def sum_all(*nums): ...
arguments into a
(*args)
tuple.
Collects
Arbitrary def
keyword
Keyword print_details(**details): .
arguments into a
(**kwargs) ..
dictionary.
4. Recursion
Recursion is when a function calls itself. It must have a base
case to terminate.
Example (Factorial):
Python
def factorial(n):
if n == 0: # Base Case
return 1
else: # Recursive Case
return n * factorial(n - 1)
5. Scope of Variables
Scope determines where a variable can be accessed, following
the LEGB Rule: Local, Enclosing, Global, Built-in.
 Use the global keyword to modify a global variable from

within a function.
 Use the nonlocal keyword to modify a variable in an

enclosing scope (nested functions).

📦 Unit IV: Modules, Packages, and File Handling
🧩 Modules and Packages
1. User-defined Modules and Packages
 Module: A Python file (.py) containing code. Use import

module_name.
 Package: A directory containing related modules and an

__init__.py file.
2. Standard Library Modules
Module Purpose Example
Generating random
random [Link](1, 10)
numbers.
Array/matrix
operations
numpy (fundamental for [Link]([1, 2, 3])
scientific
computing).
Advanced scientific
Scipy and technical [Link](0.95)
computing.
Mathematical
Math functions (e.g., sqrt, [Link](25)
pi).
Date and time
datetime [Link]()
manipulation.
Sys System-specific [Link]
 Module Purpose Example
parameters and
functions.
3. Regular Expressions (re module)
Used to define search patterns.

Location of
Function Purpose Example
Match
Only at the
Check for a
beginning [Link](r"A",
[Link]() pattern
of the "ABC")
match.
string.
Search for
Anywhere
the first [Link](r"B",
[Link]() in the
pattern "ABC")
string.
occurrence.
Substitute all
[Link](r"\s", "-",
[Link]() occurrences
Anywhere. "a b") $\
(Replace) of the
rightarrow$ 'a-b'
pattern.

📁 File Handling
1. File Types, Modes, and Opening
 File Types: Text Files (sequence of characters, handles

EOL) and Binary Files (sequence of raw bytes, no EOL

handling).
 File Modes: Specify the operation.
 o r: Read (default).
o w: Write (creates, overwrites if exists).

o a: Append (creates, adds to end).

o Append b for binary (e.g., rb, wb).

 Opening/Closing:

Python
# Recommended approach: 'with' ensures the file is closed
automatically
with open("[Link]", "w") as f:
[Link]("Hello MCA")
2. Accessing and Manipulating Files
 Reading:

o [Link](): Reads the entire file content.

o [Link](): Reads a single line.

o [Link](): Reads all lines into a list.

 File Pointers:

o [Link](): Returns the current position of the pointer.

o [Link](offset, whence): Moves the pointer. (whence=0

is start, 1 is current, 2 is end).

 Renaming/Deleting: Use the os module.

Python
import os
[Link]("[Link]", "[Link]")
[Link]("[Link]")
3. Binary Files
Binary files are used with the b mode. The pickle module is
used to serialize (dump) and deserialize (load) Python objects
into binary files.
Python
import pickle
data = {'a': 1}
with open("[Link]", "wb") as f:
[Link](data, f)

⚠️Unit V: Exception Handling and Data Analysis Basics

🚫 Exception Handling
1. Exception and Exception Handling
 An Exception is an event that occurs during program

execution that disrupts its normal flow (e.g., TypeError,

ZeroDivisionError).
 Exception Handling manages these events to prevent

program crashes.
2. try, except, finally
 try: Contains the "risky" code.

 except: Executes if an exception occurs in try. You can

specify the exception type.

 else: Executes only if the try block succeeds (no

exceptions).
 finally: Executes always, regardless of whether an

exception occurred or was handled (useful for cleanup).

Example:
Python
try:
result = 10 / int(input("Enter number: "))
except ZeroDivisionError:
print("Cannot divide by zero.")
except ValueError:
print("Invalid input.")
else:
print(f"Result: {result}")
finally:
print("Cleanup done.")
3. User Defined Exceptions
Create custom exceptions by defining a class that inherits from
the built-in Exception class. Use the raise keyword to trigger
them.
Python
class InsufficientFunds(Exception):
pass # Custom class for a specific scenario

amount = 50
if amount < 100:
raise InsufficientFunds("Minimum withdrawal is 100.")

📊 Basics of Python for Data Analysis

The Pandas library is key for data analysis, offering two main
structures: Series and DataFrames.
1. Introduction to Series
 A Series is a one-dimensional labeled array. It's like a

single column of data in a spreadsheet.

 It consists of data and an associated index (labels).

Python
import pandas as pd
s = [Link]([10, 20, 30], index=['A', 'B', 'C'])
2. Introduction to DataFrames
 A DataFrame is a two-dimensional, tabular data structure

(rows and columns). It's the most common object for data
manipulation.
 It can be viewed as a collection of Series objects that share

the same index.

Example (DataFrame Creation and Access):
Python
data = {
'Name': ['Mia', 'Joe'],
'Age': [28, 35]
}
df = [Link](data)

# Accessing a column (returns a Series)

print(df['Name'])

# Accessing a row by label (index)

print([Link][0])

# Accessing a row by integer position

print([Link][1])