INDEX

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE NO

Introduction 2
What is atomic structure? 2
Atomic model 3
Dalton’s atomic structure: 4
 About
 Postulates
 Demerits
JJ Thomson atomic structure: 6
 About
 Cathode ray experiment
 Discovery of electron
 Plum pudding model
 Drawbacks
Rutherford atomic structure: 14
 About
 Alpha ray scattering experiment
 Discovery of nucleus
 Limitation
Bohr’s atomic structure: 18
 About
 Postulates
 Limitation
 Bohr’s atomic theory
Quantum mechanical model of atom 23
Quantum numbers 25
Subatomic particles 27
Atomic structure of isotopes 29
Conclusion 31
Bibliography 33

1
INTRODUCTION
Atomic structure is the structure of an atom that consists of a nucleus at the
centre containing neutrons and protons, while electrons are revolving around the
nucleus. As atoms are made up of a very tiny, positively charged nucleus that is
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

The earliest concept of atoms was given by Indian philosopher Maharshi

Kanad who proposed that matter is made up of very small indestructible particles
called 'Parmanu'. A Greek philosopher named Demo critus also initially claimed
that matter is formed of atoms, and is credited with developing the concepts of
atomic structure and quantum mechanics. Later in the 1800s, John Dalton a
British Scientist put out the first atomic structure scientific theory.

WHAT IS ATOMIC STRUCTURE?

The composition of an clement's nucleus and how its clectrons are arranged
around it are referred to as the elements atomic structure. Protons, electrons and
neutrons comprise the majority of the atomic structure of matter The atom's
nucleus, which is made up of protons and neutrons, is surrounded by the atom's
own electrons. The total number of protons in an element’s nucleus is expressed
by the elements atomic number. Protons and electrons are equal in number in
neutral atoms. But atoms can receive or lose electrons to make them more stable,
and the resulting charged of I object is known as an ion. Because different
elements atoms contain varying numbers of protons and electrons, their atomic
structures are also different. This explains why different elements have unique
[Link] atomic model which we study today was not given at one time.
Several attempts were made by scientists and later improved leading to the
current atomic model. Let's learn about different atomic models which led to the
evolution of the present model.

ATOMIC MODELS

2
Many scientists used atomic models to understand the structure of the atom in
the early centuries. Each of these models had advantages and disadvantages of its
own and played a significant role in the development of the modern atomic
model. Scientists like John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and Niels Bohr
made the most noteworthy contributions to science.

 JOHN DALTON. - 1803

 JJ . THOMSON - 1904

 ERNEST RUTHERFORD - 1911

 NIELS BOHR. - 1913

 ERWIN SCHRODINGER - 1926

This section of the article discusses the following theories regarding atomic
structure:

1. Dalton's Atomic Theory

2. Thomson's Atomic Model

3. Rutherford's Atomic Model

3
4. Bohr's Atomic Model

5. Quantum Mechanical Model

DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY

 ABOUT DALTON:

John Dalton (5 or 6 September 1766 - 27 July 1844) was an English

chemist ,physicist and meteorologist. He is the best known for introducing the
atomic theory into chemistry and for his research into colour blindness which he
had . Colour blindness is known as Daltonism in several language, being named
after [Link] Dalton, a British Chemist proposed that every matter is made up of
[Link] atoms are indivisible and indestructible i.c. they can't be broken
down into smaller particles. He also suggested that all atoms of a particular
matter are the same, but atoms of different elements differ in size and mass. This
means atoms of each element are unique. According to Dalton’s atomic theory,
Chemical reactions occur at atomic level and evolve the rearrangements of atoms
in order to form the Products. AeCOrdn8 to the postulates proposed in his theory,
atomic structure is made up of they are the smallest particles responsible for
chemical reactions to occur.

 POSTULATES OF DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY:

4
The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory:

(1) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms.

(2) Atoms are indivisible particles which cannot be created or destroyed in a

chemical reaction.

(3) Atoms of given element are identical in mass and chemical properties.

(4) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties.

(5) Atom combine in the ratio of small whole numbers to form compounds.

(6) The relative number and kinds of atoms are constant in a given compound.

 DEMERITS:

1. Allotropes are not included in this theory.

2. Elements are not always present in whole-number ratios in a compound.

3. The theory doesn’t involve isobars.

4. The theory doesn’t include isotopes.

5. The theory doesn’t account for subatomic particles.

JJ THOMSON ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 ABOUT:

Joseph John Thomson was born on December 18, 1856, in Cheetham Hill, a
suburb of Manchester. He studied at Owens College, Manchester in 1870
and entered Trinity College, Cambridge University as an academic in 1876.
He attended Trinity College when he won the second Wrangler Prize and

5
 the second Smith Prize in 1880, was a life member of the University, he
became a member of the faculty in 1883 and received a master’s degree in
1918. Cambridge succeeded Sir Rayleigh from 1884 to 1918 and was
professor emeritus at Cambridge and the Royal College of London.

Thomson’s early interest in atomic structure was reflected in his 1884

Adams Prize-winning paper on vortex motion. He published the application
of kinetics in physics and chemistry in 1886 and 1892 and published a note
on recent research on electric and magnetic fields. The second book deals
with the results obtained after the publication of James Clark Maxwell’s
famous “Thesis”, and is often referred to as “Maxwell Volume Three”.
Thomson and Professor JH Poynting collaborated on the Four-Mass Physics
textbook Properties of Matter and published Elements of the Mathematical
Theory of Electricity and Magnetism in 1895. The fifth edition was
published in 1921.

 CATHODE RAY EXPERIMENT:

Ø What is Cathode Ray Experiment?

Cathode Ray Experiment, also known as the Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Experiment, is a fundamental experiment in the history of physics that
played a crucial role in understanding the nature of electrons and

6
contributed to the development of modern electronics and television
technology.

The experiment was first conducted by Sir William Crookes in the 1870s
and later improved upon by scientists like J.J. Thomson in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries.

Ø Cathode Ray Experiment Setup

Below is the detailed setup for the Cathode Ray Tube Experiment
with the elements used along with the diagram:

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): A sealed glass tube with a cathode and
anode at either end.

Cathode: A negatively charged electrode inside the CRT.

Anode: A positively charged electrode inside the CRT.

High Voltage Generator: A power supply capable of providing a

high voltage between the cathode and anode.

Vacuum Pump: A pump to evacuate air from the CRT to create a

low-pressure environment.

Discharge Tube: The entire CRT assembly including the cathode,

anode, and vacuum space.

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Ø Procedure of Experiment

Below is the procedure steps for the experiment with the

perspective of the JJ Thomson:

1. JJ Thomson created a sealed cathode ray tube with minimal air

inside.

2. Connected the tube to a power source, causing electrons

(cathode rays) to shoot out.

3. Observed electrons moving in straight lines inside the vacuum of

the tube.

4. Introduced an electric field by adjusting the power, causing

electrons to change their path.

5. Experimented with magnets, observing electrons being affected

and swerving in response.

6. Adjusted power settings to observe changes in electron

movement, establishing consistent patterns.

7. Systematically recorded electron behaviour in various situations.

8
 8. Determined the charge-to-size ratio of electrons, making a
significant discovery.

9. Concluded that cathode rays were composed of tiny particles

known as electrons.

10. Thomson’s discovery revolutionized understanding of the

microscopic world’s building blocks.

Ø Observation of Cathode Ray Experiment

In the Cathode Ray Experiment, J.J. Thomson made a ground

breaking observation i.e., when cathode rays encountered electric
and magnetic fields, they exhibited intriguing behaviour. Thomson
noticed their deflection, and the direction of this deflection
pointed to a negative charge. This pivotal observation led
Thomson to the ground breaking conclusion that cathode rays
were composed of negatively charged particles, now recognized
as electrons.

Ø Conclusion of Cathode Ray Experiment

Cathode Ray Experiment marked a revolutionary moment in the

realm of science. J.J. Thomson’s demonstration of cathode ray
deflection and the identification of these rays as negatively
charged particles conclusively affirmed the existence of subatomic
particles. This ground breaking experiment transformed our
comprehension of atomic structure, shattering the notion that
atoms were indivisible. Instead, Thomson’s work revealed the
presence of smaller components within atoms. This pivotal
episode in the history of physics not only altered fundamental
perspectives but also laid the foundation for subsequent
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 advancements in the [Link] Anode Disk: Placed at the
anode end to allow some cathode rays to pass through.

 The Discovery of Electron:

J.J. Thomson, a scientist, began working with cathode ray tubes in

the early 1900s. Cathode ray tubes are vacuum-sealed glass tubes
that have had most of the air removed. At one end of the tube, a
high voltage is placed between two electrodes, causing a stream
of particles to flow from the cathode (the negatively charged
electrode) to the anode (the positively charged electrode) (the
positively charged electrode).

Because the particle beam, or cathode ray, starts at the cathode,

the tubes are termed cathode ray tubes. The beam may be
detected by painting phosphors on the tube’s far end, beyond the
anode. When the cathode ray strikes the phosphors, they spark or
emit light. Thomson surrounded the cathode ray with two
oppositely charged electric plates to investigate the particles’
characteristics. The cathode ray was redirected from the
negatively charged electric plate to the positively charged plate.

10
 The cathode ray was made up of negatively charged particles,
according to this.

Thomson also installed two magnets on either side of the tube

and noticed that the cathode ray was diverted by the magnetic
field. Thomson used the findings of these tests to calculate the
mass-to-charge ratio of cathode ray particles, which led to a
surprising discovery: each particle’s mass was much, much lower
than any known atom. Thomson continued his tests with several
metals as electrode materials and discovered that the
characteristics of the cathode ray were consistent regardless of
the cathode material.

Thomson made the following findings based on the evidence:

Negatively charged particles make up the cathode ray.

Because the mass of each particle is ∼ 1/2000 that of a hydrogen

atom, they must be part of the atom.

Within the atoms of all elements, these subatomic particles may

be found.

 PLUM PUDDING MODEL:

Thomson’s discoveries were initially contentious, but they were

progressively accepted by scientists. His cathode ray particles
were eventually given a more common name: electrons. The
discovery of the electron contradicted Dalton’s atomic theory’s
assumption that atoms were indivisible. An altogether new atomic
model was required to account for the presence of electrons.

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Thomson was an English physicist who conducted experiments
with cathode rays, which are beams of electrons emitted from a
metal plate when an electric current is applied. He measured the
ratio of the charge to the mass of the electrons and found that it
was much smaller than that of any known atom. He concluded
that electrons are subatomic particles that are present in all
Atoms.

Thomson also knew that atoms are electrically neutral, meaning

that they have no overall charge. He reasoned that there must be
some positive charge in atoms that cancels out the negative
charge of the electrons. He also followed the work of William
Thomson (Lord Kelvin), who had proposed a model of a positive
sphere atom a year earlier.

Thomson published his plum pudding model in 1904 in a leading

British science journal. He described atoms as spheres of uniform
positive charge, with electrons distributed as point charges in
shells. He used mathematical formulas to calculate the forces
between the electrons and the sphere and between the electrons

12
 themselves Thomson’s model sought to describe atomic structure
and explain matter’s chemical and electrical traits, aligning with
the era’s prevalent classical mechanics.

 DRAWBACKS OF THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL:

The model did not mention the presence of nucleus in the

[Link] model said that the sphere is positively charged and it
holds the electron, which is not possible. So, the model failed to
explain the stability of an [Link] failed to explain Rutherford’s
scattering experiment, and was unable to explain the scattering of
alpha particles when projected on gold foils.

Note: Thomson studied electrical and magnetic properties of

cathode rays. He also calculated the mass to charge ratio of
electrons. Using this ratio, he concluded that the size of these
particles was even smaller than hydrogen ions.

RUTHERFORD ATOMIC MODEL

 ABOUT:

13
New Zealand-born British physicist who first explained that radioactivity
is produced by the disintegration of atoms and discovered that alpha
particles consist of helium nuclei. For these achievements, Rutherford
was awarded the 1908 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Rutherford went on
to make two more discoveries of fundamental importance to nuclear
physics: he was the first to determine the basic structure of the atom
and show that it consists of a central nucleus surrounded by electrons,
and he also produced the first artificial transformation, thereby
changing one element into another.

 Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment:

Rutherford conducted an experiment by bombarding a thin sheet of

gold with α-particles and then studied the trajectory of these particles
after their interaction with the gold foil.

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 Rutherford, in his experiment, directed high energy streams of α-
particles from a radioactive source at a thin sheet (100 nm
thickness) of gold. In order to study the deflection caused to the
α-particles, he placed a fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around
the thin gold foil. Rutherford made certain observations that
contradicted Thomson’s atomic model.

 Observations of Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment:

The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

(i) A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold

sheet passed through the sheet without any deflection, and hence
most of the space in an atom is empty.

(ii) Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very
small angles, and hence the positive charge in an atom is not
uniformly distributed. The positive charge in an atom is
concentrated in a very small volume.

(iii) Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few
α-particles had nearly 180o angle of deflection. So the volume
occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is very
small as compared to the total volume of an atom.

 DISCOVERY OF NUCLEUS:
The nucleus (plural, nuclei) is a positively charged region at the
centre of the atom. It consists of two types of subatomic particles
packed tightly together. The particles are protons, which have a
positive electric charge, and neutrons, which are neutral in
electric charge. Outside of the nucleus, an atom is mostly empty

15
 space, with orbiting negative particles called electrons whizzing
through it. The figure below shows these parts of the atom.

The nucleus of the atom is extremely small. Its radius is only about
of the total radius of the atom. Electrons have virtually no mass,
but protons and neutrons have a lot of mass for their size. As a
result, the nucleus has virtually all the mass of an atom. Given its
great mass and tiny size, the nucleus is very dense. If an object the
size of a penny had the same density as the nucleus of an atom,
its mass would be greater than 30 million tons!

 Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model:

Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on

experimental observations, it failed to explain certain things.

q Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the

nucleus in fixed paths called orbits. According to Maxwell,
accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations and
hence an electron revolving around the nucleus should emit
electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy from
the motion of the electron which would come at the cost of

16
 shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons would collapse in the
nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per the Rutherford
model, an electron would collapse into the nucleus in less than
10-8 seconds. So the Rutherford model was not in accordance
with Maxwell’s theory and could not explain the stability of an
atom.

q One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he

did not say anything about the arrangement of electrons in an
atom which made his theory incomplete.

q Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to

explain certain experimental results, they formed the base for
future developments in the world of quantum mechanics.

BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

 ABOUT:

17
 Niels Bohr (born October 7, 1885, Copenhagen, Denmark—died
November 18, 1962, Copenhagen) was a Danish physicist who is
generally regarded as one of the foremost physicists of the 20th
century. He was the first to apply the quantum concept, which
restricts the energy of a system to certain discrete values, to the
problem of atomic and molecular structure. For that work he
received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. His manifold roles in
the origins and development of quantum physics may be his
most-important contribution, but through his long career his
involvements were substantially broader, both inside and outside
the world of physics.

 BOHR’S POSTULATES:

1. The electrons move around the nucleus in definite circular orbits.

These orbits are also called ‘shells’ or ‘energy levels.’

2. Each orbit is stationary and has a definite energy. These circular

orbits or shells with definite energy are called ‘orbital shells.’

3. Bohr labelled these orbits or energy levels by the quantum

number ‘n.’ The first shell, closest to the nucleus, is designated by
the alphabet K. The second shell is designated by L, the third by
M, and the fourth by N and so on. The K, L, M, N… can
accommodate a maximum of 2, 8, 18, 32… electrons respectively.
The lowest energy level is called the ground state

18
4. Electrons do not radiate energy while revolving in these shells of
fixed energy. The energy is radiated or absorbed only when the
electrons transit from one energy level to another

5. When an electron jumps from a higher energy level to a lower

energy level, it loses some of its energy. But when an electron
moves from a lower energy level to a higher energy level, it gains
some energy (or photons). Energy is emitted or absorbed in
discrete quantities known as ‘quanta.’

 LIMITATION OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL:

Bohr’s atomic model explains many features of the atomic theory,

but it has its limitations. The problems with the Bohr model are
listed below:

1. It contradicts Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. The

consideration of the Bohr’s atomic model that electrons have
both a known orbit and radius violates Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle

19
2. It fails to predict the spectra of larger atoms and provides
insufficient data for the spectra of smaller atoms

3. It fails to explain the Zeeman Effect. Zeeman Effect is the splitting

of spectral lines into several components in the presence of a
magnetic field

4. It does not explain the Stark Effect. The Stark effect is the splitting
of spectral lines into various components in the presence of an
electric field. The Bohr’s model of an atom fails to clarify this
effect

5. It fails to explain the shapes of molecules.

6. Bohr’s model can explain why electrons do not fall into the
nucleus. Niels Bohr postulated that electrons revolve in fixed
energy levels. The energy levels have discrete energies associated
with them. Bohr’s model was the first one to incorporate
quantum theory.

NOTE: The model was later modified by Sommerfeld due to its

limitations. Sommerfeld’s model assumed the orbits of electrons
to be elliptical rather than circular. Sommerfeld’s model could
explain spectral effects, but it had limitations too.

 BOHR’S THEORY:

Ø Introduction To Bohr’s Atomic Theory:

In 1913, Niels Bohr introduced the theory about the hydrogen line
spectrum and the reasons behind the discontinuities in the lines.
His theory also proved that the question of instability of the
atomic structure as per Rutherford’s model was invalid. This is the

20
 main reason why his theory is considered as the major game-
changer. Besides, the Bohr Model formula is defined based on the
quantum theory of Planks that says:

1. Every matter emits or absorbs a certain amount of energy in small

packets known as quantum.

2. For light energy, a quantum is known as a photon.

3. The formula defines a photon’s energy: E= hf, where h is the

Plank’s constant, and f is the frequency.

Ø RULES OF BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL THEORY:

The Bohr Model of hydrogen can be explained by his postulates

which are as follows:

1. The entire atomic mass is concentrated at the centre, where the

positively charged particles, called protons, are present. The
electrons surround the nucleus and constantly revolve in non-
radiating energy orbits known as stationary orbits.

21
 2. These stationary orbits have fixed energy, so they are also known
as energy levels. The greater the distance between the orbit and
the nucleus, more will be the energy. Considering the orbital
number system, K is the closest orbit and has the least energy
while M, N, and so on have a high amount of energy.

3. Bohr’s formula for energy levels also defines that one of those
orbits is permissible where the angular momentum of the
electrons can be a whole multiple of h/2π.

4. When electrons jump from one energy level, it emits or absorbs a

certain amount of energy in the form of Qantas. Here, the amount
of energy in the Qanta’s is equal to the gap between the energy of
the E₁ and E₂ stationary orbits.

QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

1. The energy of an electron is quantized i.e. an electron can only
have certain specific values of energy.

2. The quantized energy of an electron is the allowed solution of the

Schrödinger wave equation and it is the result of wave like
properties of electron.

22
 3. As per Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle, the exact position and
momentum of an electron cannot be determined. So the only
probability of finding an electron at a position can be determined
and it is |ψ|2 at that point where ψ represents the wave-function
of that electron.

4. An atomic orbital is the wave-function (ψ) of an electron in an

atom. Whenever an electron is described by a wave-function, it
occupies atomic orbital. As an electron can have many wave-
functions, there are many atomic orbitals for the electron. Every
wave-function or atomic orbital have some shape and energy
associated with it. All the information about the electron in an
atom is stored in its orbital wave function ψ and quantum
mechanics makes it possible to extract this information out of ψ.

5. The probability of finding an electron at a point within an atom is

proportional to the square of the orbital wave function i.e., | ψ |2
at that point. | ψ |2 is known as probability density and is always
positive.

QUANTUM NUMBER:
v Principal quantum number (n)

Principal quantum numbers describe the energy of an electron, size of

the orbitals, and the number of shells in an atom.

23
It also provides information about atomic radii, the velocity of electrons
associated with particular shells, and the angular momentum of orbit.

Angular momentum of orbit = image

If, n = 1 means electron present in 1st shell (K Shell)

n = 2 means electron present in 2nd shell (L Shell)

Number of orbitals present in nth shell = n2

NOTE: the number of shells possible in an atom is infinite.

v Azimuthal quantum number (l)

Azimuthal quantum numbers describe the shape of an orbital

associated with a particular principal quantum number and the number
of subshells present in a shell.

It also provides information about orbital angular momentum.

Value of l depends on value of n = 0 to (n - 1)

o For n = 1, value of l = 0 (means 1st shell contains only one subshell

(1s subshell)

o For n = 2, value of l = 0 and 1 (means 2nd shell contains two

subshell (2s & 2p subshell)

24
 o For n = 3, value of l = 0,1 and 2 (means 3rd shell contains three
subshell (3s, 3p & 3d subshell)

o For n = 4, value of l = 0,1, 2 and 3 (means 4th shell contains four

subshell (4s, 4p, 4d & 4f subshell)

Maximum number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l+1

Maximum number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l+1)

v Magnetic quantum number (m / ml)

Magnetic quantum numbers describe orientation in space of an orbital

of a given energy and shape. It also gives numbers of the orbitals
present in a [Link]

The number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

v Spin quantum number (s)

Spin quantum numbers describe the orientation of the spin axis of an

electron.

It can have values image They are normally represented by arrows, up

arrow (↿) and down arrow (⇂).

One electron has two spin values so one orbital contains a maximum of
two electrons.

25
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

Ø PROTONS:

Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1919, when

he performed his gold foil experiment. He projected alpha particles
(helium nuclei) at gold foil, and the positive alpha particles were
deflected. He concluded that protons exist in a nucleus and have a
positive nuclear charge. The atomic number or proton number is the
number of protons present in an atom. The atomic number determines
an element (e.g., the element of atomic number 6 is carbon).
26
 Ø ELECTRONS:

Electrons were discovered by Sir John Joseph Thomson in 1897. After

many experiments involving cathode rays, J.J. Thomson demonstrated
the ratio of mass to electric charge of cathode rays. He confirmed that
cathode rays are fundamental particles that are negatively-charged;
these cathode rays became known as electrons. Robert Millikan,
through oil drop experiments, found the value of the electronic charge.

Electrons are located in an electron cloud, which is the area

surrounding the nucleus of the atom. There is usually a higher
probability of finding an electron closer to to the nucleus of an atom.
Electrons can abbreviated as e-. Electrons have a negative charge that is
equal in magnitude to the positive charge of the protons. However,
their mass is considerably less than that of a proton or neutron (and as
such is usually considered insignificant). Unequal amounts of protons
and electrons create ions: positive cations or negative anions.

Ø NEUTRONS:

Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, when he

demonstrated that penetrating radiation incorporated beams of neutral
particles. Neutrons are located in the nucleus with the protons. Along
with protons, they make up almost all of the mass of the atom. The
number of neutrons is called the neutron number and can be found by
subtracting the proton number from the atomic mass number. The
neutrons in an element determine the isotope of an atom, and often its
stability. The number of neutrons is not necessarily equal to the
number of protons.

27
Atomic Structures of Isotopes
Structure of an atom is called Atomic [Link] are types of an
atom that have the same number of protons and the different number
of neutrons.

The difference in the number of neutrons changes the atomic mass of

the isotopes of the element.

In other words, isotopes of an element have the same Atomic number

(Z) but different Mass Numbers (A).

Hence the isotopes of an element are placed in the same respective

position as that of the original element in the periodic table.

The isotopes of an element have the same electronic configuration as

the atomic number is the same.

The isotopes of an element show similar chemical properties because

the electron determines the chemical behaviour of an element. In
isotopes, the no. of electrons remains the same hence they show
similar chemical properties.

Examples of different isotopes and their atomic structures

28
Isotopes of hydrogen :

Protium, Deuterium and Tritium

Protium – it contains 1 proton + 1 electron. The atomic no. is 1 and the

mass no. is also 1

Deuterium- It contains 1 proton + 1 neutron. The atomic no. is 1 but

the mass no. is 2 in this case.

Tritium- contains a proton + 2 neutrons. The atomic no. is 1 but the

mass no. is 3.

CONCLUSION
The concept of the atomic model describes how scientists have
understood the structure of atoms over time. Each model built upon
the ideas and discoveries of earlier ones, helping us move closer to the
modern understanding of atomic structure.

1. Dalton’s Atomic Model (1808)

29
  Proposed that atoms are indivisible, indestructible particles.

 All atoms of an element are identical.

 Could not explain the existence of subatomic particles or isotopes.

2. J.J. Thomson’s Model (1898)

 Discovered the electron using the cathode ray experiment.

 Proposed the Plum Pudding Model, where negatively charged

electrons were embedded in a positively charged sphere.

 Failed to explain the arrangement and stability of electrons.

3. Rutherford’s Model (1911)

 Through the alpha scattering experiment, discovered the nucleus

at the center of the atom.

 Concluded that atoms are mostly empty space, with electrons

revolving around the nucleus.

 Could not explain why electrons don’t fall into the nucleus.

4. Bohr’s Model (1913)

 Suggested that electrons revolve in specific orbits (energy levels)

without radiating energy.

 Energy is absorbed or emitted only when electrons jump between

these levels.

 Could explain the hydrogen spectrum but not multi-electron

atoms.

5. Modern Atomic Model (Quantum Mechanical Model)

30
  Based on Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and Schrödinger’s
wave equation.

 Electrons are found in orbitals, regions where there is a high

probability of finding them.

 Explains atomic behavior more accurately using quantum

mechanics.

Summary

From Dalton to the quantum model, each step in the evolution of

atomic theory brought us closer to understanding the invisible yet
powerful building blocks of matter. Today’s model blends classical ideas
with modern quantum theory, revealing the atom as both wave and
particle — a marvel of the microscopic world.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 NCERT Chemistry Textbook – Class XI & XII,

 [Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]

 [Link]

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