Chapter 9: Earthing Systems

Introduction
All electrical systems and safety instructions require earthing in buildings, due to its importance
in protecting humans and preventing potential electrical shocks caused by design errors,
operational errors, weather conditions, or insulation failure.

It is well known that the live conductors in an electrical system typically carry electrical current
during normal operation. However, other metal parts, such as the frames of electrical devices, do
not carry current, but they can be at a high voltage if the insulation between them and the electrical
circuits inside them fails. This exposes the facility and workers to danger if no preventive measures
are taken, including connecting those structures to the earth grid. This system is known as earthing.

Earthing is the connection of the metal structures of electrical equipment (such as the frames and
bodies of machines, motors, transformers, electrical panels, cable trays, armored cable sheaths,
etc.) to the earth electrode with a low resistance that can reach one ohm through an insulated copper
wire known as the ground conductor.
One of the most important purposes of earthing is to protect humans from electrical shocks,
because the accumulated electrical current on the body of machines (electrostatic charges) takes
the easiest and least resistance path. This easiest path is of course the earth line (connected to the
grounding electrode) because its resistance is very small compared to the resistance of the human
body.
Earthing and Grounding

The words "grounding" and "Earthing" have the same meaning. The term "Earthing" is used in
U.K. and grounding is used in U.S.A both of them electrically mean connection to ground or earth.
Earth and Neutral

The neutral line is the path through which the normal current returns to the source, as shown in
Figure 1 (A). However, if there is a ground line, the fault current (which is the current that flows
when there is a problem in the electrical system) will return through it to the source, as shown in
Figure 1 (B).
Current strength and time passing through the human body
The danger from electric shock is primarily due to the magnitude and duration of current
passing through the human body, particularly the heart (see the figure). The severity depends on:

 Body resistance (primarily skin impedance)

 Contact duration
 Path of current through the body
Influence of Environmental Conditions

The body impedance changes significantly

depending on the environment:
 Dry conditions → Higher skin resistance (~kΩ)
 Wet or damp conditions → Lower resistance → Higher risk
This variation impacts the contact voltage Uc that could appear across a human body in a fault.
Safety Threshold: Conventional Limit Voltage (UL)

IEC 60479 defines the conventional limit voltage UL, the maximum contact voltage that can be
safely withstood for at least 5 seconds:
 UL = 50 V in dry environments
 UL = 25 V in wet or damp environments
Exceeding this threshold requires that fault voltage duration be limited using automatic
disconnection (e.g., with circuit breakers or RCDs).
Disconnection Time Requirement

IEC 60364 and NF C 15-100 require that if the contact voltage Uc is likely to exceed UL, then the
disconnection time must be sufficiently short to prevent dangerous exposure. This is typically
ensured through:
 Proper earthing system design
 Use of protection devices with fast-acting trip times (refer to Figure 2)
Touch Voltage and Step Voltage
a) Touch Voltage:
Touch voltage is the voltage difference between a live conductor or an exposed conductive
part and the earth, that a person might experience while touching the object and standing
on the ground.

 It is measured by placing:
o One of the voltmeter leads on the exposed conductive part

o The other lead on the ground approximately 1 meter away

Hazards:
 Can cause electric shock, muscle contractions, cardiac arrest, or death
 Critical in fault scenarios where metallic parts become energized
b) Step Voltage: The voltage difference between a person’s feet when standing on the
ground above a spreading fault current.

 Occurs during earth faults, when current enters the ground (e.g., from a faulted pylon or
transformer)
 The earth acts as a conductor, and current spreads radially, causing voltage gradients.
 The step voltage is directly related to the magnitude of the fault current and the resistance of
the soil.
How It Happens:
 If a person has one foot closer to the fault point and one farther, a potential difference
develops between their feet (see Figure 3)
 This can cause a current to flow through the body, especially through the legs and lower
torso
Mitigation Methods

Both touch and step voltages pose serious safety risks, especially during earth faults. To
mitigate these hazards:
 Use low-impedance earthing systems
 Install equipotential bonding (connect all conductive parts to the same potential)
 Employ earth mats, graded earth mesh, or gravel layers around substations and high-risk
areas
 Apply protective devices (RCDs, circuit breakers) that quickly disconnect the power
supply
Key Relationships

 Touch Voltage (Ut) ∝ Fault Current × Earth Impedance

 Step Voltage (Us) ∝ Fault Current × Voltage Gradient in the Soil
Direct Contact and Protection Measures
Direct contact refers to the accidental contact of persons with live conductors, such as phase
or neutral wires, or with conductive elements that are normally energized (see Fig. 4). This
situation can result in serious electric shock or injury.

In 230/400 V low-voltage networks, protection against direct contact is ensured by one or more
of the following measures:
 Insulation: Live parts are covered with materials that prevent contact (e.g., wire insulation).
 Physical barriers or enclosures: Live parts are housed within cabinets or behind barriers
to prevent access.
 Location out of reach: Placing live parts in areas inaccessible without tools or ladders.
A complementary protection method is the use of:
 High Sensitivity Residual Current Devices (HS-RCDs) rated at 30 mA, which provide
instantaneous disconnection in case of leakage currents that may indicate accidental
contact.
Note: Protection against direct contact is independent of the earthing system. However, HS-
RCDs are particularly essential in installations where the downstream earthing system is not
guaranteed or not controlled.
Indirect Contact, Protection, and Prevention Measures

Indirect contact occurs when a person touches an exposed conductive part (like a metal
frame) that has accidentally become energized due to an insulation fault (see Figure 5).
How It Happens:

 An insulation failure causes fault current to flow.

 This current creates a voltage rise (fault voltage) between the metal frame and the earth.
 If this touch voltage exceeds the conventional limit voltage (UL), it becomes hazardous.

Types of Earthing Systems

According to the International Electro Technical Commission (IEC 60364) and the French
standard NF C 15-100, three main types of low-voltage earthing systems are defined:

 TN system (Terre-Neutral):
Exposed-conductive-parts are connected directly to the neutral conductor, which is
earthed at the source.
 TT system (Terre-Terre):
The exposed-conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode, while the
transformer neutral is also earthed independently.
 IT system (Isolé-Terre):
The transformer neutral is unearthed or connected through high impedance, and the
exposed-conductive-parts are connected to local earth.
The earthing mode of the secondary of the MV/LV transformer and the means of earthing the
installation frames are used to characterize the low voltage earthing system. This is identified by
means of two letters that describe the transformer neutral connection and the type of application
frame connection.
The first letter represents the transformer neutral connection:
• T for "connected" to the earth in a TN system,
• I for "isolated" from the earth in an IT system.
The second letter represents the type of application frame connection:
• T for "directly connected" to the earth in a TT system,
• N for "connected to the neutral" at the origin of the installation, which is connected to the earth in a TN system.
The combination of these two letters gives three possible configurations:
• TT: transformer neutral earthed, and frame earthed,
• TN: transformer neutral earthed, frame connected to neutral,
• IT: unearthed transformer neutral, earthed frame.
The TN system, as in IEC 60364 includes several sub-systems:
• TN-C; if the N and PE neutral conductors are one and the same (PEN);
• TN-S: if the N and PE neutral conductors are separate
• TN-C-S: use of a TN-S downstream from a TN-C (the opposite is forbidden).
Protection Measures:
To guard against this risk, IEC 60364 (formerly IEC 364) and national standards (e.g., NF C
15-100) have defined rules for three recognized low-voltage earthing systems, each with
specific protection mechanisms:
1. TN System:
o Frame is connected to the neutral point (which is earthed).

o Protection relies on overcurrent devices to disconnect supply quickly.

2. TT System:
o Frame is connected to a local earth electrode.

o Protection is provided using RCDs to detect and clear earth faults.

3. IT System:
o Supply is unearthed or impedance-earthed.

o Relies on insulation monitoring devices to detect first faults and RCDs/overcurrent

devices for second faults.

Key Concept: The goal is to prevent dangerous voltages on accessible metal parts and
automatically disconnect the faulty circuit within safe time limits defined by IEC standards.
 [Link] System (Terra-Neutral System)

In a TN earthing system, the neutral point of the transformer is directly connected to the
earth, and all exposed conductive parts of the electrical installation (e.g., enclosures, metal
casings) are connected to the neutral conductor, providing a low-impedance return path for
fault currents.
This configuration ensures quick disconnection of the faulty circuit by protective devices (such
as circuit breakers), thereby minimizing the risk of electric shock.
I. TN-C Earthing System

TN-C stands for Terra-Neutral Combined, where:

 "T" = Neutral point of transformer is earthed.
 "N-C" = Neutral (N) and Protective Earth (PE) functions are Combined in a single
conductor, called the PEN (Protective Earthed Neutral) conductor.
System Characteristics:

 The PEN conductor carries both the return current and serves as protective earthing.
 All exposed conductive parts are connected to this PEN conductor.
 The system relies on the PEN to ensure fault current returns to the source promptly,
enabling protective devices to operate quickly.
Disadvantage:

If the PEN conductor breaks or becomes loose:

 The exposed conductive parts are no longer earthed.
 This can lead to dangerous touch voltages, posing a severe shock hazard.
Safety Requirement:

 Proper installation and maintenance of the PEN conductor is critical.

 PEN conductors must be mechanically strong and securely bonded.
II. TN-S Earthing System (Terra-Neutral – Separated)

In the TN-S (Terra-Neutral Separated) system:

 The neutral conductor (N) and the protective earth conductor (PE) are completely
separated throughout the entire installation.
 The transformer neutral is directly earthed, and the PE conductor connects all exposed
conductive parts of the installation to the Main Earthing Terminal (MET).
System Architecture:

 The neutral conductor (N): Returns current to the transformer.

 The PE conductor: Provides a low-impedance path for fault current, enabling fast
tripping of protective devices.
 See Figure 7 for a typical diagram of the TN-S system layout.
Advantages of TN-S:
 High safety level against electric shock.
 Low electromagnetic interference (EMI), since PE and N conductors are separate.
 Improved system reliability in sensitive environments (e.g., hospitals, data centers).
Disadvantages of TN-S:
 Higher installation cost due to the need for two separate conductors throughout the
system.
 If the PE conductor is broken or damaged, exposed conductive parts can become live,
creating a shock hazard.
 Requires rigorous maintenance to ensure integrity of the PE conductor.
III. TN-C-S Earthing System (Terra-Neutral Combined-Separated)

The TN-C-S system is a hybrid earthing system that combines the TN-C and TN-S systems:
 In the upstream section (e.g., utility supply to the building), the neutral (N) and protective
earth (PE) are combined into a single PEN conductor (TN-C configuration).
 In the downstream installation, the PEN conductor is split into separate PE and N
conductors, forming a TN-S system.
System Architecture:

 The PEN conductor enters the premises from the supply source.
 At the main earthing terminal, the PEN conductor is split:
o One path continues as the neutral (N).

o The other forms the protective earth (PE).

 All exposed conductive parts are connected to the PE via this terminal.
Advantages of TN-C-S:
 Economical upstream design using a single PEN conductor (like TN-C).
 Improved safety and EMI immunity in the downstream (like TN-S).
 Common in residential and commercial installations with utility-supplied earthing.
Disadvantages of TN-C-S:
 Installation complexity due to the transition from PEN to separate PE and N conductors.
 Safety hazard if the PEN conductor is damaged: exposed parts may become live.
 Potential voltage difference between neutral and earth may:
o Damage sensitive equipment,

o Increase risk in case of broken PEN conductor.

Important Design Notes:

 The integrity of the PEN conductor is crucial; it must be mechanically strong, well-
maintained, and correctly sized.
 The link between the neutral terminal and main earthing terminal must be secure and
periodically inspected.
 B. TT Earthing System (Terra-Terra)

In a TT system, both the power supply source (e.g., transformer neutral) and the user
installation are earthed separately:
 The transformer neutral is connected to a supply-side global earth electrode.
 The installation's exposed conductive parts are connected to a local earth electrode
(independent of the supply earth).
System Architecture:

 As shown in Figure 9, the PE conductor of the installation connects to a local earth

electrode via the main earthing terminal.
 This local earth electrode is typically:
o A ground rod, or

o A buried ground grid.

Advantages of TT System:
 High safety level in installations without reliable bonding to the supply network.
 Particularly suited for rural areas, isolated buildings, or places with high soil resistivity.
 Can continue operation safely even if the supply-side earth is damaged.
Disadvantages of TT System:
 Higher installation and maintenance cost, due to the need for a dedicated earth
electrode.
 Susceptibility to earth resistance variability, especially in dry or rocky terrain.
 Sensitive to electrical noise and interference, especially in industrial environments.
 C. IT Earthing System (Isolated or Impedance Earthed Neutral)

In an IT earthing system (as shown in Figure 10), the neutral point of the supply source is
either:
 Not connected to earth at all (isolated neutral), or
 Connected through a high impedance (e.g., a resistor or reactor).
All exposed conductive parts (metallic enclosures, frames, etc.) of the installation are
connected to an independent local earth electrode.
System Structure:
 PE conductor connects exposed conductive parts to a local earth electrode via the main
earthing terminal.
 Unlike TN/TT, the fault current is extremely low during the first insulation fault, due to
the lack of a direct return path through a neutral-to-earth connection.
Advantages of the IT System:
 High continuity of service: Operation can continue even with one fault (first fault is not
dangerous).
 Enhanced safety in critical environments: Hospitals, operating rooms, industrial control
systems, and airport runways.
 Reduced fire risk, since fault current is very low and does not cause overheating.
 Low chance of damage to equipment during the first fault.
Disadvantages of the IT System:
 Requires insulation monitoring devices (IMD) to detect the first insulation fault.
 Becomes dangerous after second fault if not cleared.
 More complex system design; system capacitance increases with size, which can lead to
nuisance RCD tripping.
 Needs segmentation using isolating transformers for large installations (adds cost and
complexity).
Fault Handling in IT System:
First Fault (Single Earth Fault):

 Very low current, often in the mA range.

 Does not trip protection devices (MCBs, RCDs) automatically.
 Must be detected by insulation monitoring devices (IMDs).
Second Fault (Double Earth Fault):

 If it occurs on a different phase, a high fault current flows through the PE path (like in a
TN system).
 Must trip immediately via RCDs or MCBs to prevent electrocution.
Special Note:
In case of a dead fault (e.g., L1 to PE) in a 230 V system, the voltage between the other
phases and earth can rise to approximately 400 V, which must be considered when selecting
insulation levels.
Fault Current Behavior in IT System

1. Normal IT Operation
 The supply side (transformer secondary) is:
o Isolated from earth, or

o Earthed through a high impedance.

 No current flows to earth in normal conditions.

 All exposed conductive parts (frames) are connected to PE and earthed using a separate
earth electrode.
2. First Fault Condition
Fault Type: One phase conductor touches a frame (e.g., L1-to-metal)

 The circuit closes through the system’s capacitance to earth (C) and possibly through a
high-impedance earthing resistor (if installed).
 The fault current Id is very low (typically in mA range), and does not trigger OCPDs
(MCBs or fuses).
 Instead, it must be detected by an Insulation Monitoring Device (IMD), which gives an
alarm, but does not disconnect automatically.
3. Second Fault Condition
If the first fault has not been cleared, and a second insulation fault occurs on another live
conductor, then:
Three Possible Cases:

1. Same phase conductor as first fault:

o No additional danger

o The system continues operating.

2. Different phase conductor:

o If all frames are interconnected via PE → forms a line-to-line short-circuit through

PE:
L1→PE→L2

o This is dangerous, similar to TN system short-circuit.

o SCPDs (fuses or breakers) must operate quickly to disconnect the fault.

3. Neutral conductor involved:

o The fault current and touch voltage are lower (typically half) compared to TN

system.
4. If Frames Are Not Interconnected
 The situation becomes like a TT system:
Fault current flows through the earth between separate earthing points.
 This current is usually too small to trip MCBs → must use RCDs.
 Each individual circuit or group must be protected with an RCD:
𝑅𝐸 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 ≤ 50 𝑉
4. Disconnection Time for IT Systems (IEC 60364)
Nominal Voltage (U₀) Max Disconnection Time
≤ 230 V 0.4 seconds
> 230 V and ≤ 400 V 0.2 seconds
> 400 V 0.1 seconds

These times apply only to second fault situations where disconnection is required.
Summary Table of IT System Fault Scenarios
Fault Type Current Path Protection Method Risk Level
First fault Via system capacitance Insulation Monitor Low (monitor only)
Second fault (diff. L) PE → like L–L short SCPD or RCD High (disconnection needed)
Second fault (Neutral) Via PE SCPD or RCD Medium
Unconnected frames Through earth (like TT) RCD High
Comparison of Earthing Systems: TN, TT, and IT
 Feature / Criteria TN System TT System IT System
Neutral is isolated or earthed through
Neutral Connection Neutral is earthed at the source Neutral is earthed at the source
high impedance
Exposed Conductive
Connected to source earth Connected to local earth Connected to local earth
Parts
Through system capacitance and high
Fault Current Path Through PE or PEN to source Through earth back to source
impedance (very low Id)
High fault current → fast Moderate fault current → Very low current, operation continues,
First Fault Behavior
disconnection requires RCD monitoring needed
Overcurrent devices (MCB, IMD for 1st fault; RCD or MCB for 2nd
Protection Devices RCD is required
fuse); optional RCD fault
Earth Fault Current
High Moderate Very low (for first fault)
Magnitude
Risk During First Dangerous without fast
Dangerous without RCD Safe, if monitored properly
Fault disconnection
Need for Insulation
Not required Not required Mandatory (IMD required)
Monitoring
Use Case / Common Urban networks, industry, Rural areas, buildings without Hospitals, airports, high-availability
Applications commercial good source earth industrial systems
Continuity of
Interrupted at first fault Interrupted at first fault Maintained at first fault
Supply
Installation High (independent earth
Medium High (requires monitoring, segmentation)
Complexity electrode)
Cost Low to medium Medium to high High
Easy to implement in remote
Main Advantage Simple and reliable protection High safety and continuity
areas
PEN disconnection is Needs frequent earth checks
Main Disadvantage Complex monitoring and maintenance
hazardous and RCD testing
Earthing Systems
The Earthing system generally consists of:
• Soil in which the electrode is placed
• Earthing electrode
• Cables
A steel strip (25 x 4 mm2) can also be buried inside the foundation of the building, with a
protruding end that will be connected to the ground wires connected to the main panel later. It is
preferable that this strip be connected not only to the external beams of the building foundation,
but to all internal and external beams. In other words, we use the electrodes that are naturally
present in the building's structures, such as the reinforcement steel in the concrete foundations, in
order to increase the efficiency of the ground grid. This is done during the construction of the
concrete foundation of the building, where a good connection is made between one of the
reinforcement bars and the general ground conductor of the building. This will make it as if we
have placed another set of electrodes in parallel with the original electrode.
Approximated method to calculate the earthing resistance
𝝆
• In the case of a single vertical electrode: 𝑹𝑽 = 𝑳
𝟐𝝆
• In the case of a single horizontal electrode: 𝑹𝑯 = 𝑳
𝑹
• In the case of having N vertical electrodes connected in parallel: 𝑹𝑽−𝑻 = 𝜼𝑵𝑽

 Where 𝑹𝑽 is the resistance of one electrode

 𝜂 depends on two factors:
1. The first one is S/L where s is the distance between
electrodes and L is the length of the electrode.
2. The second factor is N (the number of electrodes).
• In the case of grounding using a horizontal strip buried in the foundation of the building,
where L is the total perimeter of the building:
𝟐𝝆
𝑹𝑯−𝑻 =
𝑳𝜼𝑯
𝑹𝑯−𝑻 × 𝑹𝑽−𝑻
𝑹𝒆𝒒 =
𝑹𝑯−𝑻 + 𝑹𝑽−𝑻
Example: A square factory with length of 75 m is desired to design earthing network contains 20
vertical electrodes with length of 5 m buried in a soil with specific resistance = 500 Ω.m. Theses
electrodes are connected with 4x40 mm2 horizontal.
𝝆 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝑽 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝛀.
𝑳 𝟓
𝑺 𝟏𝟓
= = 𝟑 ⟹ 𝜼 = 𝟎. 𝟖
𝑳 𝟓
𝑹𝑽 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝑽−𝑻 = = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝛀.
𝜼𝑵 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝝆 𝟐 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝑯−𝑻 = = = 𝟒. 𝟕 𝛀.
𝑳𝜼𝑯 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟕
𝑹𝑯−𝑻 × 𝑹𝑽−𝑻 𝟒. 𝟕 × 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = = = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 𝛀.
𝑹𝑯−𝑻 + 𝑹𝑽−𝑻 𝟒. 𝟕 + 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟓
Earth Resistance Measurement
The fall of voltage method (fall of potential method) is the most commonly used method for
measuring the resistance of the earth. In this method Rod 1 represents the earthing electrode whose
resistance is to be measured, and Rod 3(P) and Rod 2(C) are two auxiliary electrodes. If a current
flows between Rod 1 and Rod 2(C), and the voltage difference between Rod 1 and Rod 3(P) is V,
then the quotient of I/V is the resistance of the earth. The device for measuring the resistance of
the earth is called Megger.
Fault Current Behavior in TN System

1. Nature of Fault Current (Id):

 In a TN earthing system, when an insulation fault occurs (such as a short-circuit between
phase and an exposed conductive part), the fault current 𝐼𝒅 is primarily limited by the
impedance of the fault loop (cables, conductors, and source impedance).
 Typically, the upstream impedance causes a voltage drop of about 20% of the phase-to-
neutral voltage (𝑈0 ), i.e.,
𝑈𝑓𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 ≈ 0.8 × 𝑈0

2. Protection Condition (𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0 ):

 For automatic disconnection of
supply, the following condition must
always be met:
 𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0
Where:
𝑍𝑠 : total fault loop impedance (Ω).
𝐼𝑎 : operating current of the protective device (e.g., 𝐼𝑚 for MCBs 𝐼𝑑𝑛 for RCDs).
𝑈0 : rated voltage between phase and earth (e.g., 230 V).
This ensures the fault current (𝐼𝐹 ) is sufficiently high to trip the protective device quickly,
preventing hazardous touch voltages.
3. Disconnection Time:
According to IEC 60364, the disconnection times for fault currents in TN systems must comply
with this table (example for 230V systems):

Final Circuit Rated Current Max Disconnection Time

≤ 32 A 0.4 seconds
> 32 A 5 seconds
If the protective device doesn’t trip in this time, the touch voltage may exceed 50 V, increasing
risk to persons.
The following table shows the breaking time in TN system (taken from IEC 60364 tables 41 and
48 A).

4. Earth Voltage Safety Condition:

To prevent dangerous voltages on exposed conductive parts or nearby extraneous conductive
parts, the earth voltage must remain below 50 V:
𝑅𝑀𝐸 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 50 𝑉
Where:
𝑅𝑅𝐸 : earth resistance of unconnected metal parts (e.g., feces, rails).
𝐼𝑎 : fault current as defined before.
5. Visual Example (Fig. 11 Reference):
 Fault path in a TN system is a closed loop: phase → fault point → exposed part → PE →
source neutral → back to source.

This loop must allow sufficient fault current to trigger

protection rapidly.
Fault Current Behavior in TT Earthing System

1. How It Works
In a TT system:
 The transformer neutral is earthed.
 The user’s installation frame is earthed independently (separate electrode).
 If an insulation fault occurs (e.g., phase touches frame), fault current Id flows through:
Phase→ Fault→ Frame→ Local Earth (𝑅𝐴 )→General Earth→ Transformer Neutral Earth (𝑅𝐵 )
2. Why RCDs Are Essential
𝑈𝐿
 The fault current 𝐼𝑑 = 𝑅 is often too low to trip standard overcurrent protective
𝐴+𝑅𝐵
devices (e.g., MCBs).
 Therefore, RCDs (Residual Current Devices) must be installed to detect small leakage
currents and disconnect power quickly.
 To ensure safe disconnection, the following condition must be satisfied:
𝑅𝐸 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 ≤ 50 𝑉
Where:
 𝑅𝐸 : Earth resistance (local + PE), in ohms.
 𝐼𝑑𝑛 : RCD rated residual current.
 50 V: Maximum touch voltage allowed in standard environments.
Example: TT System with 30 mA RCD
Given:
 RCD: 30 mA (0.03 A)
 Earth resistance 𝑅𝐸 = 500 Ω.
 Nominal voltage 𝑈0 = 230 𝑉.
Step 1: Apply the Disconnection Rule
𝑅𝐸 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 = 500 × 0.03 = 15 𝑉

Step 2: Compare to Touch Voltage Limit

15 𝑉 ≤ 50 𝑉
Conclusion:
 The system is safe: The RCD will trip before dangerous voltage builds up on exposed
metal.
 TT systems must always use RCDs, since fault currents are usually too small to trip circuit
breakers.
What If It Fails?

If 𝑅𝐸 = 2000 Ω, then:
𝑅𝐸 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 = 2000 × 0.03 = 60 𝑉 > 50 𝑉 ⟹ Not safe.

Solution:
 Improve the earthing system (reduce 𝑅𝐸 𝑡𝑜 < 1666 Ω for 30 mA RCD).
 Or use a lower-rated RCD, e.g., 10 mA (if permitted by leakage currents).
Extra Tip:
To calculate the maximum allowable earth resistance 𝑅𝐸 , use:
50 𝑉
𝑅𝐸 ≤
𝐼𝑑𝑛
For a 30 mA RCD:
50 𝑉
𝑅𝐸 ≤ = 1666 Ω.
0.06
Here are two worked examples to help you understand how to verify fault current and
disconnection time compliance in a TN system, based on the condition:
 𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0
Where:
 𝑍𝑠 : total fault loop impedance (Ω).
 𝐼𝑎 : operating current of the protective device (e.g., 𝐼𝑚 for MCBs 𝐼𝑑𝑛 for RCDs).
 𝑈0 : rated voltage between phase and earth (e.g., 230 V).
Example 1: 16 A Final Circuit Protected by a Circuit Breaker
Given:
 Circuit breaker rating: B16 (16 A, Type B MCB)
 Voltage: 230 V
 Fault loop impedance 𝑍𝑠 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝛀.
 Type B breaker magnetic trip current: 𝑰𝒂 = 𝟓 × 𝑰𝒏 ⟹ 𝑰𝒂 = 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟖𝟎 𝑨.
Check:
𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0
𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝑽 ≤ 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝑽 ⟹ Pass.
Conclusion: The breaker will trip in time under fault conditions. System is compliant.
Example 2: 32 A Final Circuit with Higher Impedance. Given:

 Breaker: C32 (32 A, Type C MCB)

 Voltage: 230 V
 Fault loop impedance 𝑍𝑠 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝛀.
Type C breaker magnetic trip current: 𝑰𝒂 = 𝟓 − 𝟏𝟎 × 𝑰𝒏 ⟹ Use minimum 𝑰𝒂 = 𝟓 × 𝟑𝟐 =
𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝑨.
Check: 𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0
𝟏. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝑽 > 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝑽 ⟹ Fail.
Conclusion: The fault current may be too low to trip the breaker within time limits. You must:
 Reduce fault loop impedance (e.g., by increasing conductor size), or
 Use a different protective device (e.g., RCD).
Example using an RCD in a TN system, based on the disconnection condition:
𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 ≤ 𝑈0
Where:
 𝑍𝑠 : Fault loop impedance (Ω).
  𝐼𝑑𝑛 : RCD rated residual current (A).
 𝑈0 : Nominal phase-to-earth voltage (usually 230 V).
Example 3: Final Circuit Protected by a 30 mA RCD
Given:
 Voltage 𝑈0 = 230 𝑉.
 RCD rating 𝐼𝑑𝑛 = 30 𝑚𝐴 = 0.03 𝐴.
 Fault loop impedance 𝑍𝑠 = 1200 Ω.
Step 1: Apply the Disconnection Formula
𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 = 1200 × 0.03 = 36 𝑉.
Step 2: Compare to Touch Voltage Limit (Usually 50 V)
36 𝑉 ≤ 50 𝑉 ⟹ Pass.
And since:
𝑍𝑠 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 = 36 𝑉 ≤ 𝑈0 = 230 𝑉 ⟹ Pass.
Conclusion:
  The RCD will trip fast enough during a fault (usually within 30 ms to 300 ms).
 The touch voltage remains safe (below 50 V), even if the fault loop impedance is relatively
high.
 The system complies with IEC 60364 disconnection requirements for TN systems using
RCDs.

Fault Protection in TT System:

 Since the fault current is limited by the earth resistance, overcurrent protection devices
(like MCBs) may not trip fast enough.
 Therefore, Residual Current Devices (RCDs) are mandatory for fault protection.
o RCDs must have sufficient sensitivity (e.g., 30 mA or 100 mA).

o The key safety condition:

𝑅𝐸 × 𝐼𝑑𝑛 ≤ 50 𝑉
Where:
 𝑅𝐸 : Earth resistance (local + PE), in ohms.
 𝐼𝑑𝑛 : RCD rated residual current.
 50 V: Maximum touch voltage allowed in standard environments.
IT System – Second Fault Calculation Example
System Description:

 Line-to-line voltage 𝑈𝐿𝐿 = 400 𝑉.

 Neutral is not distributed (typical in IT systems).
 All exposed conductive parts are interconnected via the PE.
 First fault occurred on L1 in one circuit.
 Second fault occurs on L2 in another circuit (different feeder).
 Each feeder is protected by a circuit breaker with a magnetic trip setting of 𝐼𝑚 = 160 𝐴.
 The length and cross-section of both feeders are the same.
 The total loop impedance for the fault path is:
𝑍𝑆 = 𝑍𝐿1 + 𝑍𝑃𝐸 + 𝑍𝐿2 = 0.8 Ω.

Objective:
1. Calculate the fault current Id
2. Check if the fault will be disconnected within the required time
3. Ensure compliance with:
𝑍𝑆 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0
Step 1: Calculate Fault Current
Since both faults involve two different live conductors (L1 and L2), and the PE interconnects
the exposed parts, this is essentially a line-to-line fault via the PE.
𝑈0 400
𝐼𝐹 = = = 500 𝐴.
𝑍𝑆 0.8
Step 2: Check Disconnection Condition
Use IEC 60364 disconnection criterion:
𝑍𝑆 × 𝐼𝑎 ≤ 𝑈0 = 230 𝑉
Given:
 Zs=0.8 Ω
 Assume circuit breaker’s magnetic trip 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑚 = 160 𝐴.
𝑍𝑆 × 𝐼𝑎 = 0.8 × 160 = 128 𝑉 < 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝐕 → 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐬𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐬𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐝.
Step 3: Check Breaking Time
IEC 60364 requires for second fault (TT/TN-like behavior in IT system):
 0.4 s max disconnection time for 𝑈0 = 230 𝑉.
 Circuit breaker with 160 A magnetic trip usually trips within 0.1–0.2 s at 𝐼𝐹 = 500 𝐴.
Time compliance met.
The system is safe and compliant, even in a second fault condition, because all PE conductors
are interconnected.