Cables and Their Construction

Introduction

In electrical power systems, conductors and cables play a fundamental role in transmitting and distributing electrical energy safely and
efficiently.

 The term “cable” generally refers to main feeders that carry power from the main supply or transformer to distribution boards.
 The term “wires” or “conductors” is used for smaller-section conductors that form branch circuits feeding individual loads or
devices.
 A power cable is an assembly of one or more insulated electrical conductors, usually enclosed within a protective sheath. It
is primarily designed for power transmission and distribution, both underground and overhead.

Power cables are used extensively in industrial, commercial, and residential installations due to their ability to:

 Transmit large amounts of current safely.

 Resist environmental stresses (moisture, heat, mechanical damage, and chemicals).
 Provide long service life with minimal maintenance.

Cable Construction Overview

A typical power cable consists of three main components:

1. Conductor (Core) – Provides the electrical path for current flow.

2. Insulation (Dielectric) – Electrically isolates the conductor from other conductors and the external environment.
3. Sheath (Protective Covering) – Protects the cable from mechanical, chemical, and environmental damage.

As the operating voltage increases, the complexity and number of layers in the cable construction also increase to ensure reliability
and safety.
Components of Power Cable

a) Conductor / Core

 The conductor is the central part of the cable responsible for carrying electrical current.
 Copper and aluminum are the most commonly used conductor materials due to their:
 High electrical conductivity
 Ductility and mechanical strength
 Economic availability
 Conductors may be:
 Solid (single wire) for small cross-sections.
 Stranded (several twisted wires) for flexibility in larger cables.

b) Conductor Shield (Screen)

 A thin semi-conductive layer placed between the conductor and insulation.

 Purpose:
 To smooth out irregularities on the conductor surface.
 To ensure uniform electric field distribution across the insulation.
 To prevent localized field concentrations that could lead to insulation breakdown.

c) Insulation (Dielectric)

 The insulating layer separates the conductors from each other and from the surrounding environment.
 It must withstand the service voltage without failure and have high dielectric strength.
 Common insulation materials include:
 PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) – Used for low-voltage cables, flexible, flame-retardant.
 XLPE (Cross-Linked Polyethylene) – Used for medium- and high-voltage cables, excellent thermal and
electrical properties.

Note: In residential and low-voltage applications, cables usually consist only of the conductor, insulation, and outer sheath.
For higher-voltage levels, additional shielding and protective layers are required.
d) Insulation Shield (Screen)

 Another semi-conductive layer placed over the insulation.

 Ensures that the electric field is evenly distributed on the outer surface of the insulation.
 Also serves as a smooth interface between the insulation and the metallic sheath that follows.

e) Metallic Sheath / Tape Shield

 A metallic layer, often made of lead, aluminum, or copper tape, applied over the insulation shield.
 Functions:
 Provides mechanical protection.
 Prevents moisture ingress.
 Acts as a path for fault currents and provides shielding from electromagnetic interference.

f) Bedding / Filler

 A rubber or plastic layer that surrounds the insulated cores.

 Purposes:
 Maintains the circular shape of the cable.
 Prevents movement or friction between conductors.
 Provides additional water and moisture protection.

g) Armor

 A metallic protective layer applied over the bedding.

 Usually made of galvanized steel wires (GSW) or aluminum
wires/tapes.
 Provides mechanical strength, especially for underground installations.
 Some standards require metallic armor for cables rated above 1 kV to
ensure additional safety and protection from external impacts.
 h) Outer Jacket / Outer Sheath

 The final protective layer of the cable.

 Protects internal components from moisture, heat, mechanical damage, and chemicals.
 Common materials:
 PVC – Suitable for most general applications.
 PE (Polyethylene) or HDPE – Used for outdoor and buried cables due to high chemical and weather
resistance.
 It also prevents corrosion of the metallic components, especially aluminum armor or sheath.

Summary Table of Cable Components

Component Function Typical Materials

Conductor Carries current Copper, Aluminum
Conductor Shield Smooths electric field around conductor Semi-conductive compound
Insulation Electrically isolates conductors PVC, XLPE
Insulation Shield Smooths field over insulation Semi-conductive compound
Metallic Sheath Prevents moisture, provides grounding Lead, Aluminum, Copper
Bedding / Filler Maintains shape, prevents movement Rubber, Plastic
Armor Provides mechanical protection Steel or Aluminum wires
Outer Sheath Environmental protection PVC, PE

Factors Affecting Cable Selection

Selecting the appropriate type and size of power cable is a critical step in designing any electrical installation.

An incorrect cable selection can lead to overheating, excessive voltage drop, power losses, insulation failure, or even fire hazards.
Therefore, the selection process must consider electrical, mechanical, thermal, and environmental factors to ensure safe, efficient,
and reliable operation.
1. Operating Voltage

 The operating voltage of a cable is the maximum system voltage that the insulation can safely withstand under normal
conditions.
 Cables are classified according to their rated voltage, such as:
 Low Voltage (LV): up to 1 kV
 Medium Voltage (MV): 1–35 kV
 High Voltage (HV): 35–230 kV and above
 The selected cable must match the nominal voltage of the system while allowing for possible temporary over voltages
during operation.

Note: The insulation thickness and type depend directly on the rated voltage level.

2. Insulation Level

 The insulation level determines the cable’s ability to withstand electrical stresses.
 It depends on factors such as:
 The type of system grounding (e.g., solidly earthed, resistance-earthed, or isolated).
 The transient voltage conditions (switching surges, lightning, etc.).
 Higher insulation levels are required for systems that are ungrounded or have long cable runs, to minimize the risk of
insulation breakdown.

3. Maximum Load Current (Current-Carrying Capacity)

 Also known as the ampacity, it represents the maximum continuous current a cable can carry without exceeding its
permissible temperature rise.
 The ampacity depends on:
 Conductor material (copper or aluminum)
 Cross-sectional area of the conductor
 Type of insulation
 Installation method and cooling conditions
 Exceeding this limit may cause thermal degradation of insulation, leading to premature failure.
4. Maximum Overload Current

 Cables must also tolerate temporary overloads that occur during abnormal conditions (such as motor starting or inrush
currents).
 The duration and magnitude of these overloads must be within the thermal withstand capacity of the cable to avoid
insulation damage.

5. Short-Circuit Current Rating

 During a short circuit, the cable may be subjected to very high currents for a short duration (typically a few cycles).
 The cable must be capable of withstanding the electrodynamic and thermal stresses caused by these currents without
mechanical or thermal failure.
 The short-circuit capacity depends on:
 The conductor cross-sectional area
 The material (Cu or Al)
 The short-circuit duration (e.g., 1 second or 3 seconds)

Formula (for reference):

where:
Isc : short-circuit current (A)
A : conductor cross-sectional area (mm²)
k : material constant (Cu ≈ 143, Al ≈ 94)
t : fault duration (seconds)

6. Voltage Drop

 Every conductor has resistance and reactance, which cause a voltage drop along its length when current flows.
 Excessive voltage drop results in reduced equipment performance and energy loss.
  Acceptable voltage drop limits (according to most standards):
 Lighting circuits: ≤ 3%
 Power circuits: ≤ 5%
 The voltage drops (∆V) depends on:
 Cable length (L)
 Current (I)
 Conductor resistance (R) and reactance (X)
 Power factor (cos φ)
 Approximate formula:

 The cable cross-section should be increased if the voltage drop exceeds allowable limits.

7. Cable Length

 Longer cables result in higher resistance and voltage drop, affecting both efficiency and performance.
 In long-distance installations, selecting larger cross-sectional areas or using higher system voltages may be necessary to
minimize losses.

8. Installation Method

 The method of installation significantly affects current-carrying capacity and thermal dissipation.
 Common installation methods include:
 Buried underground
 Laid in conduits or ducts
 Mounted on cable trays or in air
 Each method has different cooling characteristics, which are reflected in derating factors used when determining cable
size.
 For example:
 Underground cables dissipate heat poorly → lower ampacity.
 Cables in air or on trays dissipate heat more effectively → higher ampacity.
9. Ambient and Operating Temperature

 The ambient temperature influences the cable’s permissible current-carrying capacity.

 Each insulation type has a maximum operating temperature, such as:
 PVC: 70°C
 XLPE: 90°C
 EPR: 85°C
 Cables exposed to high ambient temperatures require derating or special insulation materials.
 Similarly, at low temperatures, cables must remain flexible and not brittle to avoid cracking during handling.

10. Environmental and Soil Conditions

 For underground installations, the soil’s physical and chemical properties have a major impact on cable performance.
 Important factors include:
 Thermal resistivity of soil (affects heat dissipation).
 Moisture content (improves conductivity but may corrode metallic sheaths).
 Soil pH and chemical composition (influence corrosion rate).
 In corrosive or chemically active soils, protective coverings, armoring, or PVC/PE sheaths are required.

11. Mechanical and Environmental Stresses (Additional Consideration)

 The cable must withstand mechanical forces during installation and operation, such as:
 Pulling tension
 Bending stress
 Vibration and impact
 It must also resist environmental conditions like:
 Moisture, UV radiation, oil, and chemical exposure
 Rodent attacks or fire (depending on the installation environment)
12. Economic and Regulatory Factors (Optional but Practical)

 Cable selection must balance technical performance with cost-effectiveness.

 Factors such as initial cost, expected lifespan, and energy losses should be considered.
 All cables must comply with international or national standards such as IEC, BS, or NEC to ensure safety and
reliability.

Summary Table
Factor Description / Impact
Operating Voltage Determines insulation rating and thickness
Insulation Level Based on system grounding and surge protection
Maximum Load Current Defines ampacity and conductor size
Overload Capacity Cable’s short-term thermal limit
Short-Circuit Current Defines minimum conductor size for fault tolerance
Voltage Drop Limits efficiency and performance
Cable Length Affects voltage drop and losses
Installation Method Influences thermal dissipation and derating
Temperature Affects current rating and insulation choice
Soil & Environment Determines sheath, armor, and corrosion protection
Mechanical & Chemical Stresses Require additional protective measures
Economic / Standards Ensure compliance and cost optimization

Installation Conditions for Power Cables

The method of installing power cables significantly affects their performance, current-carrying capacity, protection, maintenance, and
lifespan.
Choosing the proper installation method depends on factors such as environmental conditions, space availability, safety requirements, and
cost.
In general, cables may be installed in conduits/ducts, on cable trays, or by direct burial. Each method has its advantages, limitations, and
design considerations.

1. Cables Installed in Conduits or Ducts

Definition

 Conduits and ducts are protective tubes or pipes through which electrical cables are drawn.
 They provide both mechanical protection and organizational routing for conductors.

Common Materials

 Metal conduits: Galvanized steel (GI), stainless steel, or aluminum – provide strong mechanical protection and electromagnetic
shielding.
 Non-metallic conduits: PVC, HDPE, or fiberglass – lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and easier to install.

Applications

 Widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial wiring systems, especially where cables may be exposed to mechanical stress
or moisture.
 Ideal for installations requiring future maintenance or modification, since cables can be easily replaced or added.

Advantages

 Excellent mechanical protection from impact or abrasion.

 Electrical isolation and moisture resistance.
 Easier to perform cable replacement or upgrades.
 Can be installed above or below ground.

Limitations

 Increased installation cost and labor time.

 Heat dissipation is reduced — current-carrying capacity must be derated.
 Condensation can occur in underground conduits if not properly sealed or ventilated.
Design Considerations

 Conduits must be sized to allow sufficient cable spacing and easy pulling (typically cable fill < 40% of cross-sectional area).
 Bends and joints should be minimized to reduce pulling tension.
 Proper earthing and bonding are required for metallic conduits.

2. Cables Installed on Cable Trays

Definition

 A cable tray is a supporting system designed to carry, organize, and protect insulated cables in industrial, commercial, or large-scale
installations.
 Trays can be made from galvanized steel, aluminum, or fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP).

Types of Cable Trays

1. Ladder-type trays – allow free air circulation and easy heat dissipation; suitable for power cables.
2. Perforated trays – provide partial protection and better cable support.
3. Solid-bottom trays – used where protection from falling debris or dust is needed.
4. Wire mesh trays – used for light-duty and data cable installations.

Applications

 Common in industrial plants, data centers, and commercial buildings where many cables run in parallel.
 Used in indoor or outdoor environments, often mounted along ceilings or walls.

Advantages

 Easy installation and inspection of cables.

 Good heat dissipation, allowing higher current ratings compared to conduit systems.
 Simplifies cable management and future expansion.
 Reduces installation cost for large-scale wiring systems.
Limitations

 Cables are exposed to mechanical damage, dust, and moisture if trays are open-type.
 Requires proper support spacing and earthing to prevent sagging or electrical hazards.
 Not ideal for buried or hazardous environments.

Design Considerations

 Select tray material based on environmental conditions (e.g., corrosion resistance in humid or chemical areas).
 Maintain spacing between power and control cables to minimize electromagnetic interference (EMI).
 Use cable clamps or ties to secure cables and prevent movement.
 Ensure trays are bonded to earth for safety.

3. Direct Burial Installation

Definition

 In the direct burial method, cables are laid directly in the ground without using ducts or conduits.
 The cable itself must have sufficient mechanical and moisture protection, typically through an armored and PVC/PE-sheathed
construction.

Applications

 Common in residential distribution, street lighting, and underground power networks.

 Used where protection against mechanical impact and corrosive soil conditions can be ensured.

Advantages

 Economical and simple to install.

 Requires minimal maintenance once properly buried.
 Good heat dissipation due to direct contact with soil.
Limitations

 Difficult to access for maintenance or replacement.

 Cable may be damaged by excavation or soil movement.
 Dependent on soil conditions, which can affect both thermal performance and corrosion rate.

Design Considerations

 Typical burial depth:

 Low-voltage cables: 0.6 – 0.8 m
 Medium-voltage cables: 0.9 – 1.2 m
 A layer of fine sand or screened soil (about 10–15 cm) should be placed around the cable to prevent damage from stones.
 Install a protective tile or warning tape above the cable for safety.
 Select cables with armor and moisture-resistant sheaths suitable for underground use.
 Consider the thermal resistivity of soil, as it directly affects current-carrying capacity.

4. Comparative Summary
Installation
Protection Level Heat Dissipation Maintenance Ease Typical Applications
Method
Conduit / Duct High mechanical protection Moderate Easy to modify Residential, commercial, underground passages
Cable Tray Moderate (open or enclosed) Excellent Very easy Industrial and commercial plants
Direct Burial Good (with armored cables) Excellent (soil contact) Difficult Underground residential and utility networks

5. General Recommendations

 Always follow relevant standards such as IEC 60364, NEC, or BS 7671 for installation practices.
 Use derating factors to adjust current-carrying capacity based on the selected installation method.
 Ensure proper earthing, mechanical protection, and spacing between cables to enhance safety and performance.
 Regular inspection and thermal monitoring are recommended for high-load systems.
Cables Classification
Power cables can be classified based on several factors, including operating voltage, conductor type, and insulation material. Understanding
these classifications helps in proper cable selection, design, and installation for electrical systems.

1. Classification Based on Operating Voltage

The operating voltage of a cable is the maximum voltage the cable can safely withstand under normal operating conditions. Cables are
commonly divided into three voltage classes:

Voltage Class Voltage Range Typical Applications

Low Voltage (LV) < 1 kV Residential wiring, small commercial installations, branch circuits
Medium Voltage (MV) 1 kV – 66 kV Industrial plants, utility distribution networks, feeders
High Voltage (HV) > 66 kV Transmission lines, high-capacity substation feeders

Note:
Higher voltage cables require more complex construction, including shielding, insulation layers, and armoring, to withstand electrical
stresses, environmental factors, and short-circuit currents.

2. Classification Based on Conductor Type

The conductor is the central component of a cable responsible for carrying current. The most common conductor materials are copper (Cu) and
aluminum (Al).

Conductor
Resistivity Advantages Limitations
Material
High conductivity → carries more current for the
Copper 1.724 μΩ·cm Higher cost, heavier
same size, excellent mechanical strength, durable
Lower conductivity → requires larger
Aluminum 2.65 μΩ·cm Lightweight, lower cost, corrosion-resistant cross-section to carry same current, more
prone to mechanical damage
Key Considerations:

 For high-current applications, copper is preferred due to its superior conductivity.

 For weight-sensitive or cost-sensitive applications, aluminum is commonly used.
 Both conductors can be solid or stranded, depending on flexibility and installation requirements.

3. Classification Based on Insulation Material

The insulation is the most critical component of a cable. It electrically isolates conductors from each other, the ground, and the environment.
Cable names often reflect the insulation material used, e.g., PVC cable, XLPE cable.

Requirements for a Good Insulation Material:

1. Electrical Insulation: Must prevent leakage or short circuits.

2. Mechanical Strength: Must withstand bending, twisting, pulling, and handling during installation.
3. Chemical Resistance: Must resist acids, bases, solvents, and other chemicals present in the environment.
4. Thermal Stability: Must tolerate high temperatures without melting or decomposing.
5. Aging Resistance: Must maintain properties over long periods without degradation.

It is challenging to meet all these criteria with a single material, which is why different insulation materials are used depending on the
application.

Common Insulation Materials:

Material Characteristics Typical Use

Good electrical insulation, moderate mechanical
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Low-voltage cables, indoor wiring
strength, flame-retardant
High dielectric strength, excellent thermal stability, Medium-voltage cables, industrial
Cross-Linked Polyethylene (XLPE)
resistant to high short-circuit currents feeders
Rubber Flexible, good thermal and mechanical properties Flexible cables, mobile equipment

Special Note on Medium-Voltage XLPE Cables:

XLPE insulation is preferred for medium-voltage networks due to its high short-circuit withstand capability:
  11 kV networks: Short-circuit level ≈ 500 MVA
 22 kV networks: Short-circuit level ≈ 750 MVA

4. Summary Table – Cable Classification

Classification Basis Categories Typical Applications / Notes
LV (<1 kV), MV (1–66 kV), HV (>66
Operating Voltage Determines insulation and construction complexity
kV)
Conductor Material Copper, Aluminum Copper → higher conductivity; Aluminum → lighter & cheaper
Determines voltage rating, thermal capacity, and mechanical
Insulation Material PVC, XLPE, Rubber
protection

Additional Notes for Lecture Use

 Voltage rating determines safety and insulation thickness.

 Conductor selection affects current-carrying capacity and economic feasibility.
 Insulation material selection affects thermal, mechanical, and chemical performance, particularly in medium- and high-voltage
installations.
 XLPE is preferred for medium-voltage applications due to its high short-circuit and thermal performance.

Cable Classification and Types

Cables can be classified based on number of cores, conductor construction, and mechanical protection.

1. Number of Cores

The number of cores in a cable refers to the number of individual conductors contained within its outer insulation.
a) Multi-core Cables

 Multi-core cables consist of three phase conductors and sometimes a neutral conductor, all enclosed within a single outer sheath.
 Advantages:
 Easier to handle and install compared to multiple single-core cables.
 The vector sum of the phase currents in a balanced three-phase system is zero, which reduces induced currents in adjacent
conductors.
 Typical Applications:
 Distribution boards, industrial machines, and residential wiring systems.

b) Single-core Cables

 Single-core cables contain one conductor per cable.

 Advantages:
 Easier to bend, twist, and route through ducts or conduits.
 Preferred for very high current applications where large cross-section conductors (>240 mm²) are used.
 Disadvantages:
 Less efficient than multi-core cables in terms of installation space.
 Difficult to transport and install due to weight and rigidity for large cross-section conductors.
 Typical Applications:
 High-current feeders, underground distribution, and industrial power installations where mechanical separation of phases is
needed.
2. Solid vs. Stranded Cables

The construction of the conductor affects the flexibility, durability, and electrical performance of a cable.

a) Solid Cables

 Made from a single solid conductor.

 Characteristics:
 Rigid and strong, but not flexible.
 Used where cables are fixed and do not need to bend frequently.
 Applications:
 Fixed wiring in buildings, circuit boards, and permanent installations.

b) Stranded Cables

 Made from multiple thin strands twisted together.

 Characteristics:
 Highly flexible and durable.
 Can carry slightly higher currents than solid cables of the same cross-section due to the skin effect.
 Applications:
 Wiring in moving machinery, robotic arms, or areas requiring frequent bending.
3. Armored vs. Non-Armored Cables

Cables may be mechanically protected depending on the installation environment.

a) Armored Cables

 Include a metallic layer (steel or aluminum) wrapped around the insulation.

 Purpose:
 Protects against mechanical damage, such as soil pressure, foot traffic, or
vehicular load.
 Applications:
 Underground installations, industrial plants, and outdoor settings.

b) Non-Armored Cables

 Lack a metallic protective layer.

 Advantages:
 Lighter and easier to install.
 Suitable for indoor environments where mechanical damage is minimal.
 Applications:
 Inside buildings, cable trays, and electrical panels.
Summary Table: Cable Types

Classification Type Key Features Typical Applications

Multi-core Easier to install, balanced phases Distribution boards, industrial machines

Number of Cores
Single-core Flexible, for high current, heavy for large sizes Underground feeders, high-power installations
Solid Strong, rigid, fixed installations Building wiring, circuit boards
Conductor Type
Stranded Flexible, durable, better for high currents Moving machinery, robotics
Mechanical Armored Metallic protection, strong, heavy Underground, outdoor, industrial
Protection Non-Armored Lighter, easier to install Indoor wiring, cable trays

Cable Color Code

Cables are often color-coded to identify the purpose of each conductor, ensure safety, and prevent miss-wiring in electrical installations.
Understanding color codes is essential for installation, maintenance, and troubleshooting.

Purpose of Color Coding

 Phase Identification: Ensures correct connection of three-phase systems.

 Neutral Identification: Distinguishes the neutral conductor from phases.
 Protective Earth Identification: Clearly marks protective earth (ground) for safety.
 Maintenance Safety: Helps technicians avoid accidental contact with live wires.
 Standardization: Follows national or international standards for consistency.

2. Common Cable Color Codes

The exact color codes can vary depending on national standards (e.g., IEC, NEC, BS). Below is a general reference following IEC
60446/60445 and widely used practices:
 a) Single-Phase Systems (230V)

Conductor Type Color Code Notes

Phase (Live) Brown L1 or Line

Neutral Blue N
Protective Earth Green/Yellow stripes PE (Earth/Ground)

b) Three-Phase Systems (400V)

Conductor Type Color Code Notes

Phase 1 Brown L1
Phase 2 Black L2
Phase 3 Grey L3
Neutral Blue N
Protective Earth Green/Yellow stripes PE

In Palestine:
 Wire Color Typical Phase Notes
Brown L1 (Phase 1) Base phase color
Used instead of solid black (easier to
Brown with Black Stripe L2 (Phase 2)
source if limited wire colors available)
Brown with Orange Stripe L3 (Phase 3) Alternative to grey for third phase
Blue Neutral (N) Standard IEC color
Green/Yellow Earth (PE) Standard IEC color

Additional Notes

 Special Purposes: Certain applications may require unique colors, e.g., red for emergency circuits or orange for interlock circuits.
 Safety Tip: Never assume wire function based solely on color. Always verify with a voltage tester before touching.
 Labeling: In addition to color coding, labeling with letters or numbers is recommended in complex control systems for easy
identification.

Cable Formation

The formation of a cable refers to the physical arrangement of its individual conductors within the outer sheath. Proper cable formation is
critical because it affects magnetic field distribution, heat dissipation, current-carrying capacity, and voltage balance. There are two main
types of cable formations: Trefoil and Flat.

Trefoil Formation

 Definition: In trefoil formation, the individual conductors are arranged in a triangular pattern.
 Purpose & Advantages:
 Ensures equal spacing between phases, which results in balanced magnetic fields.
 Reduces circulating currents in the surrounding metallic structures.
 Compact design, saving space in containment systems such as cable trenches, ducts, or underground installations.
 Commonly used for Low Voltage (LV) and Medium Voltage (MV) systems up to 132 kV.
 Limitations:
 When using single-core cables, the conductors are in direct contact, which reduces heat dissipation.
 The reduced cooling can lower the current-carrying capacity, so thermal considerations must be taken into account by the
design engineer.
 Applications:
  Underground distribution, industrial plants, and high-voltage transmission systems where space is limited.

Flat Formation

 Definition: In flat formation, the conductors are arranged side by side in a straight line.
 Advantages:
 Easier installation in certain cable trays and conduits.
 Better heat dissipation for the outer conductors compared to trefoil formation.
 Limitations:
 The central conductor is affected by the magnetic fields of neighboring phases.
 Results in higher running temperatures in the middle phase.
 Can lead to voltage imbalance and may reduce overall efficiency.
 Applications:
 Indoor installations, bus bar connections, or where space allows and thermal management is not critical.

Summary Table

Formation Conductor
Advantages Limitations Typical Applications
Type Arrangement
Balanced magnetic field, Reduced heat dissipation for Underground, MV/LV
Trefoil Triangular
compact touching single-core cables compact systems
Easier installation, better Central conductor overheats, Indoor, cable trays, non-
Flat Side-by-side line
outer conductor cooling possible voltage imbalance space-critical areas

Neutral and Earth Cable Sizing

1. Neutral Cable Sizing

Definition:
The neutral conductor provides a return path for unbalanced current in single-phase or three-phase systems. It also allows safe operation of
protective devices and ensures proper voltage levels.
Sizing Principles:

1. Balanced Loads:
 In a perfectly balanced three-phase system, the neutral current is zero.
 However, due to load variations, neutral must carry the maximum expected unbalanced current.
2. Cross-Section:
 IEC 60364 / NEC guidelines suggest that the neutral conductor size can be equal to or smaller than the phase conductor,
depending on the system and load type.
 For three-phase four-wire systems with linear loads, neutral size is usually equal to the phase conductor.
 For single-phase loads supplied from a three-phase system, neutral must be sized to carry unbalanced currents safely.
3. Voltage Drop Consideration:
 Excessive neutral resistance can cause voltage imbalance.
 The neutral conductor must be sized to limit voltage drop within acceptable limits (typically 3–5% for distribution systems).

Practical Tip:

 In systems with non-linear loads (e.g., computers, fluorescent lighting), neutral may carry harmonic currents higher than the phase
currents. In such cases, oversizing the neutral is recommended to avoid overheating.
2. Earth (Protective) Cable Sizing

Definition:
The earth (or protective) conductor provides a low-resistance path to safely divert fault currents to ground, ensuring the operation of
protective devices and preventing electric shock.

Sizing Principles:

1. Fault Current Consideration:

 The earth conductor must be sized to carry maximum prospective fault current without excessive temperature rise.
 Its size is typically smaller than phase conductors, but must meet IEC/NEC minimum requirements.
2. Voltage Drop During Fault:
 The earth conductor should maintain ground potential within safe limits during faults.
 The resistance of the protective path should be low enough to ensure fast tripping of protective devices.
3. Standard Recommendations:
 IEC 60364 Table 54 gives minimum cross-sectional areas for protective conductors:
 Copper: 16 mm² for small circuits, increasing with phase conductor size.
 Aluminum: Larger cross-section required compared to copper.
4. Installation Considerations:
 Earth conductors should be continuous and well-connected to exposed metallic parts.
 Avoid sharp bends and mechanical damage to reduce resistance.
Cable Naming and Identification

Electrical cables are designated with standardized names and formulas that convey their construction, material, insulation, number of cores,
and cross-sectional area. Understanding these naming conventions is essential for correct selection, installation, and maintenance.

1. Example of Cable Formula

Cable: PVC/CU 3x95+50 mm²

Meaning:

1. Three-phase copper cable – indicates the conductor material and intended application.
2. Insulated with PVC – specifies the type of insulation.
3. Multi-core with 4 cores – the cable has three phase conductors and one neutral conductor.
4. Cross-sectional area:
o 95 mm² → cross-section of the phase conductors (current-carrying capacity).
o 50 mm² → cross-section of the neutral conductor.

2. Standard Cable Naming Codes

Electrical cables are often named using letters and codes to describe their construction and protection.

a) N2XBY
Symbol Meaning
N Copper conductor (Cu)
2X Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation
B Double galvanized steel tape (Armored)
Y PVC outer sheath

Key Points:

 Used for medium voltage power cables.

 Armor provides mechanical protection for underground or industrial installations.
 c) NYSY
Symbol Meaning
N Copper conductor (Cu)
Y PVC insulation
S Copper tape (screened)
Y PVC outer sheath

Key Points:

 Common for low voltage, screened cables.

 Copper tape (S) acts as electromagnetic shielding and provides earth continuity.

3. General Cable Naming Components

Symbol Common Meaning

N Copper conductor (Cu)
A Aluminum conductor (Al)
X XLPE insulation
Y PVC insulation or sheath
S Copper tape screen
B Steel tape armor
1, 2 Number of layers of insulation/armor

Common Problems in Electrical Cables

Cables are exposed to several electrical, thermal, and environmental factors that can affect their performance, efficiency, and lifespan.
Understanding these issues is crucial for proper design, installation, and maintenance.
1. Skin Effect

Definition:
The skin effect is a phenomenon where alternating current (AC) tends to flow near the
surface of a conductor, rather than uniformly across its cross-section.

Cause:

 The AC generates a magnetic field, which induces eddy currents that oppose the current
flow in the center of the conductor.
 As frequency increases, the current becomes more concentrated near the surface.

Effects:

 Increased effective resistance of the conductor at higher frequencies.

 Reduced efficiency and higher power losses.

Mitigation:

 Use stranded conductors instead of solid conductors.

 For high-frequency applications, consider Litz wire (individually insulated strands).
2. Proximity Effect

Definition:
The proximity effect occurs when two or more AC-carrying conductors are close to each other, causing magnetic coupling between them.

Cause:

 The magnetic field of one conductor induces currents in adjacent conductors,

concentrating current near the surfaces closest to each other.

Effects:

 Increased effective resistance of the conductors.

 Reduced effective cross-sectional area, leading to higher losses and potential
overheating.

Mitigation:

 Increase the spacing between conductors.

 Use stranded or twisted conductors to distribute current more evenly.
 Arrange conductors in formations (like trefoil or flat) that minimize magnetic interference.

3. Temperature Effect

Definition:
The resistance of a cable is directly affected by its temperature.

Cause:

 As the cable heats up due to current flow or ambient conditions, the resistance of the conductor increases.

Effects:
  Higher operating temperatures lead to increased voltage drop and energy losses.
 Excessive temperature may degrade insulation over time.

Mitigation:

 Select conductors with appropriate temperature rating.

 Ensure adequate cooling or ventilation in cable trays or ducts.

4. Moisture and Humidity Effects

Definition:
Environmental moisture can degrade cable performance by affecting insulation and conductors.

Effects:

1. Insulation Breakdown: Moisture can swell, dissolve, or weaken insulation, leading to exposed conductors and short circuits.
2. Corrosion: Water can react with metals in conductors, forming compounds that reduce conductivity.
3. Mechanical Damage: Freezing moisture can crack or break cables, and prolonged exposure can make insulation brittle.
4. Electrical Property Degradation: Moisture can reduce insulation effectiveness, increase leakage currents, and raise cable resistance.

Mitigation:

 Use moisture-resistant insulation (e.g., XLPE, PVC with proper rating).

 Seal cable ends and joints properly.
 Install cables in dry, ventilated locations or use conduits for protection.
5. Voltage Drop

Definition:
Voltage drop is the reduction in voltage as electrical current flows through a conductor due to its resistance and impedance.

Cause:

 Resistance of the conductor and its impedance to AC.

 Longer cable lengths and higher current increase voltage drop.

Effects:

 Equipment may receive lower voltage than rated, reducing

performance.
 Can cause overheating and efficiency loss.

Mitigation:

 Use conductors with larger cross-sectional area.

 Minimize cable length when possible.
 Consider higher voltage supply for long-distance distribution.

6. Summary Table of Cable Problems and Remedies

Problem Cause Effect Mitigation

AC current concentrates
Skin Effect Increased resistance, losses Stranded conductors, Litz wire
near surface
Magnetic field of Increase spacing,
Proximity Effect Increased resistance, heating
adjacent conductors stranded/twisted conductors
Higher resistance, insulation Correct conductor sizing,
Temperature Effect Cable heating
degradation cooling/ventilation
Insulation breakdown, Moisture-resistant insulation,
Moisture/Humidity Water ingress
corrosion, mechanical damage sealing, conduits
Conductor resistance & Lower voltage at load, efficiency Larger conductors, shorter
Voltage Drop
impedance loss runs, higher supply voltage
Tables of Cables

Cable data tables are essential tools in electrical design, providing key technical information required for cable selection, installation, and
performance evaluation. These tables are typically found in cable manufacturer catalogs and standard references (e.g., IEC, BS, or NEC
standards).

Each column in the cable table provides specific information related to the physical, electrical, and mechanical characteristics of the cable. The
main columns and their meanings are as follows:

1. Product Code

 Definition: A unique identifier or code number assigned by the cable manufacturer.

 Purpose: Used for ordering and quality tracking purposes.
 Note: Product codes differ between manufacturers and therefore are not used directly in electrical design calculations. Designers should
focus instead on the cable’s specifications such as cross-sectional area, current rating, and insulation type.
2. Nominal Cross-Sectional Area (mm²)

 Definition: The effective area of the conductor through which current flows, measured in square millimeters (mm²).
 Importance:
o Determines the current-carrying capacity of the cable.
o Affects the voltage drop and power loss along the cable length.
 Typical Range: Common conductor sizes include 1.5, 2.5, 4, 6, 10, 16, 25, 35, 50, 70, 95, 120, 150, 185, 240, 300 mm², etc.
 Remark: Larger cross-sectional areas reduce resistance and voltage drop but increase cost and cable weight.

3. Maximum Conductor Resistance (Ω/km)

 Definition: The opposition a cable offers to current flow, expressed in ohms per kilometer (Ω/km).
 Classification:
o DC Resistance (20°C): The resistance of the conductor when carrying direct current at 20°C ambient temperature.
o AC Resistance (70°C): The resistance of the conductor when carrying alternating current at 70°C, accounting for additional
effects such as the skin effect and proximity effect.
 Importance:
o Helps calculate voltage drop and power loss.
o Ensures compliance with design limits specified by standards (e.g., IEC 60228).

4. Current Rating (Ampacity)

 Definition: The maximum continuous current that a cable can carry safely without exceeding its temperature limit.
 Dependent Factors: Installation method, ambient temperature, soil thermal resistivity (for buried cables), and cable grouping.
 Classification:
o Laid Direct in Ground:
The current-carrying capacity when the cable is buried directly in soil under standard conditions (e.g., 20°C ambient, 1.5 K·m/W
soil resistivity).
o Laid in Ducts:
Applies when cables are installed inside protective ducts or conduits, which limit heat dissipation and therefore slightly reduce
current capacity.
o Laid in Free Air:
Applies when cables are installed on trays, ladders, or walls with sufficient air circulation — typically allowing higher ampacity
due to better cooling.
Note: Always apply correction factors for ambient temperature, grouping of cables, and soil conditions to obtain the actual permissible current.

5. Approximate Overall Diameter (mm)

 Definition: The external diameter of the complete cable (including insulation, sheath, and armor if applicable).
 Importance:
o Determines the required conduit, duct, or tray size during installation.
o Helps calculate bending radius, which is usually specified as a multiple of the cable’s outer diameter (e.g., 12 × D for armored
cables).

6. Approximate Weight (kg/km)

 Definition: The mass of one kilometer of cable, expressed in kilograms per kilometer (kg/km).
 Importance:
o Used in mechanical design of supports, cable trays, and pulling systems.
o Important for calculating transportation, handling, and installation loads.
o For large power cables, the weight can exceed several tons per kilometer, requiring mechanical assistance for installation.

Additional Notes for Designers

 When selecting a cable, always check:

o The installation environment (air, duct, or buried).
o The maximum operating temperature of the insulation (e.g., PVC: 70°C, XLPE: 90°C).
o The derating factors for ambient conditions and cable grouping.
o Compliance with national standards (IEC 60364, BS 7671, NEC, etc.).
 Cable tables are typically supplemented by charts showing voltage drop per ampere per meter, short-circuit current ratings, and
thermal resistivity data.
Steps for Conductor Selection and Verification

1. Power Demand

Determine:

 The kVA (or kW) load to be supplied.

𝑃
 The maximum load current (Ib) using: 𝐼𝑏 =√
3×𝑉×𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

for three-phase systems.

2. Conductor Sizing

This step involves:

 Selecting conductor material (copper or aluminum).

 Choosing insulation type (PVC, XLPE, EPR, etc.).
 Selecting installation method (buried, in conduit, in air, etc.).
 Choosing overload protection (circuit breaker or fuse): 𝐼𝐶𝐵 = 𝐼𝑛 = 1.25 × 𝐼𝑏
 Applying correction factors for:
 Ambient temperature
 Grouping of cables
 Installation environment
 Determining cross-sectional area using standard current-carrying capacity tables (e.g., IEC 60364 or NEC 310).

3. Verification of Maximum Voltage Drop

Ensure the voltage drop stays within allowed limits:

 Steady-state operation: typically, ≤ 3 % for lighting and ≤ 5 % for power circuits.

 Motor starting: voltage drop must not cause starting failure.

Check using:

4. Calculation of Short-Circuit Currents

Determine:

 Upstream short-circuit power (at the supply point).

 Maximum short-circuit current at the load end (for protection device selection).
 Minimum short-circuit current (to ensure protection devices trip reliably).

This ensures cables can withstand fault currents thermally and mechanically.
Cable Sizing

Cable sizing is a fundamental part of electrical design that ensures cables can safely and efficiently carry the required current without overheating,
excessive voltage drop, or failure under short-circuit conditions. Proper cable selection guarantees system reliability, safety, and compliance with
international standards such as IEC 60364-5-52, BS 7671, and NEC.

1. Objectives of Cable Sizing

Cables are selected and sized based on three primary design criteria:

1. Current-Carrying Capacity (Thermal Rating):

The cable must carry the full load current continuously without exceeding the maximum permissible conductor temperature. This prevents
insulation deterioration and fire hazards.
2. Voltage Drop:
The voltage at the load terminals must remain within acceptable limits. Excessive voltage drop can cause inefficient operation or
malfunction of electrical equipment.
3. Short-Circuit Rating:
The cable must withstand the thermal and mechanical stresses produced by short-circuit currents for the duration of the fault-clearing time
(typically 0.2–1 s) without damage.

Note: The final cable size must satisfy all three conditions simultaneously to be acceptable.

2. Cable Sizing Methodology

The general methodology for cable sizing involves the following steps:

1. Determine the design current (Ib): based on the connected load.

2. Select the protective device rating (In): ensuring In ≥ Ib.
3. Choose a cable type: considering installation environment, insulation type (PVC, XLPE, etc.), and conductor material (copper or
aluminum).
4. Obtain the cable’s current-carrying capacity (It): from standard tables (e.g., IEC 60364-5-52).
5. Apply derating (correction) factors: to account for environmental and installation conditions.
6. Verify voltage drop limits: typically:
 ≤ 3% for lighting circuits.
 ≤ 5% for power circuits.
7. Check short-circuit withstand capacity: ensure the selected cable can withstand the fault current for the protection device clearing time.

3. Derating (Correction) Factors

Derating factors are applied to adjust the nominal current-carrying capacity of a cable under real operating conditions, which often differ from
standard reference conditions.

Where:

 Iactual: Actual permissible current

 Itable: Rated current from standard table
 k1 – k5: Derating (correction) factors

4. Types of Derating Factors

a. Ambient Air Temperature Derating Factor (k₁)

 Standard Reference: 30 °C ambient air temperature.

 Reason: Higher ambient temperatures increase conductor temperature, reducing ampacity.
 Correction: Use manufacturer or IEC-provided correction factors.
 Typical Example (for 40 °C ambient):
o PVC insulation → 0.87
o EPR insulation → 0.91
o XLPE insulation → 0.94
b. Ground Temperature Derating Factor (k₂)

 Standard Reference: 20 °C soil temperature.

 Reason: As ground temperature increases, heat dissipation decreases, limiting current capacity.
 Example (for 30 °C ground temperature):
o PVC insulation → 0.90
o XLPE insulation → 0.94

c. Soil Thermal Resistivity (k₃)

 Standard Reference: 2.5 K·m/W.

 Definition: The ability of the soil to conduct heat away from the buried cable.
 Effect:
o Dry or sandy soil → higher resistivity → lower ampacity.
o Moist clay → lower resistivity → higher ampacity.

 Typical Soil Resistivity Values:

Thermal Resistivity
Soil Type Correction Factor (k₃)
(K·m/W)
Wet Soil 1.5 1.1
Normal Soil 2.5 1
Dry Soil 4 0.8
Very Dry Sand 6 0.6
d. Grouping Factor (k₄)

 Reason: When multiple cables are installed close together, mutual heating reduces each cable’s ability to dissipate heat.
 Effect: Current-carrying capacity must be reduced depending on the number of cables and spacing.
 Typical Examples (Installation Method D – Buried Cables):

Number of
Derating Factor (k₄)
Circuits
1 1
2 0.8
3 0.7
4–6 0.6

Increase cable spacing where possible to minimize derating.

e. Burial Depth Derating Factor (k₅)

 Standard Reference: 0.8 m depth for direct burial.

 Reason: At greater depths, soil temperature is higher and heat dissipation decreases.
 Typical Factors:

5. Reference Standards and Design Notes

 The IEC 60364-5-52 standard provides comprehensive current rating tables and
correction factors for different installation methods and materials.
 Conductor Materials: Copper cables have lower resistance and higher ampacity compared to aluminum for the same cross-section.
 Insulation Types:
 PVC: Max operating temp 70 °C
 EPR / XLPE: Max operating temp 90 °C
  Installation Methods: (As per IEC)
 A: Enclosed in conduit on wall or in trunking
 B: Enclosed in thermal insulation
 C: Clipped direct or in free air
 D: Buried directly in the ground

Cable Current-Carrying Capacity Calculations

The current-carrying capacity (ampacity) of a cable is the maximum current that it can safely conduct continuously without exceeding its
permissible temperature limit. This capacity depends on how effectively the cable can dissipate heat generated by electrical losses.

Two common installation conditions are considered in cable design:

 Cables installed in air

 Cables buried in the ground

Because each environment provides different cooling characteristics, separate formulas and correction factors are used to determine the actual
current capacity (Iz) under real installation conditions.

I. Cables Installed in Air

Formula

Where:

 Iz → Actual current-carrying capacity (A) under real operating conditions.

 Ir → Rated current-carrying capacity (A) of a single cable installed in air at a reference ambient temperature of 30°C.
 k1 → Ambient temperature correction factor, accounting for air temperatures different from 30°C.
 k2 → Grouping (derating) factor, accounting for heat buildup when multiple cables are installed together.

Explanation
 When a cable carries current, I²R losses produce heat. The rate at which this heat dissipates to the surrounding air depends on:

 Ambient temperature (the higher it is, the lower the cooling rate).
 Cable spacing (closer cables retain more heat).
 Type of insulation material (PVC, XLPE, etc.).

Thus, the actual permissible current (Iz) is obtained by applying correction factors to the standard rated current (Ir).

Example Correction Factors

Ambient No. of
k₁
Temperature k₁ (PVC) Circuits in k₂ (Grouping Factor)
(XLPE)
(°C) Air
25 1.03 1.02 1 1
30 (reference) 1 1 2 0.85
35 0.94 0.96 3 0.8
40 0.87 0.91 4–6 0.7
45 0.79 0.87
50 0.71 0.82

Note: Increasing spacing between cables improves cooling and allows higher ampacity.

II. Cables Buried in Ground

Formula

Where:

 Iz → Actual current-carrying capacity (A) under real conditions.

 Ir → Rated current capacity (A) for a single cable buried in ground at 20°C reference temperature and standard soil resistivity (2.5 K·m/W).
 k1 → Ground temperature correction factor (adjusts for soil temperature).
 k2 → Grouping factor, to account for the mutual heating effect of adjacent cables.
 k3 → Soil thermal resistivity correction factor, adjusts for the soil’s ability to conduct heat away.
 k4 → Burial depth correction factor, accounts for variations in installation depth from the standard 0.8 m.
When cables are buried underground, heat dissipation depends heavily on soil conditions and installation depth.

 The higher the soil temperature or thermal resistivity, the less effectively heat is conducted away, reducing the current capacity.
 Grouping multiple cables or burying cables too deep also limits heat transfer to the surface.

Thus, the formula adjusts the rated capacity (Ir) using the environmental and installation correction factors.

Ground Thermal
k₁ k₁ Correction Correction
Temperature Soil Type Resistivity Depth (m)
(PVC) (XLPE) Factor (k₃) Factor (k₄)
(°C) (K·m/W)
15 1.06 1.04 Wet Soil 1 1.2 0.5 1.03
20 (reference) 1 1 Normal Soil 2.5 1 0.8 (reference) 1
25 0.95 0.96 Dry Soil 4 0.8 1.1 0.96
Very Dry
30 0.89 0.94 6 0.6 1.4 0.92
Sand
35 0.84 0.91

 The actual current-carrying capacity (Iz) of a cable is always lower than its rated capacity (Ir) due to environmental and installation
conditions.
Therefore, applying all relevant derating factors is essential to ensure the safety, reliability, and longevity of electrical installations.

Based on to IEC 60364-5-52, Solve the following Example:

Example 1: Cable Ampacity Calculation (According to IEC Standard): Determine the ampacity (Iz) of a 3-core copper cable with XLPE insulation and a cross-
sectional area of 240 mm², installed flat on a perforated tray running horizontally in air, with an ambient temperature of 40°C.

Step 1: Identify the Type of Installation

According to IEC 60364-5-52, the installation type is

classified as: Type (E) – Cables on perforated trays or
ladder racks in air.

Refer to Table A.52-3, Page 31 of the standard.

Step 2: Determine the Base Current (Ir)

From Table B.52.12, Page 53:

For a 3-core copper cable, XLPE insulation, 240 mm², and

installation type E, the base current is:

Ir = 538 A

This represents the current-carrying capacity at standard reference

conditions:

 Ambient air temperature = 30°C

 Single circuit in free air (no grouping)
Step 3: Determine the Temperature Correction Factor (k1)

If the ambient temperature differs from the standard

30°C, a correction factor must be applied.

From Table B.52-14 (IEC 60364-5-52), for XLPE-

insulated cables in air at 40°C:

k1 = 0.91
Step 4: Determine the Grouping (Derating) Factor (k2)

When multiple cables are installed close together, mutual heating occurs, reducing
the current-carrying capacity.
Refer to Table B.52-20 (IEC 60364-5-52).

For:

 Number of trays = 1
 Number of cables = 4 (3 Ph + N)
 Installation type = flat formation

We find:

k2 = 0.79

Step 5: The combined effect of both correction factors is given by:

K = k1 * k2 = 0.91 * 0.79 = 0.718

Step 6: Calculate the Derated Ampacity (Iz)

Finally, the actual allowable current (ampacity) under given installation conditions is:

Iz = Ir * K= 538 * 0.718 = 386.3 (A)

Discussion and Notes

 The derating process ensures safe operation of cables under actual environmental and installation conditions.
 If the cable were installed in a group of fewer cables or at lower temperatures, the ampacity would increase.
 Conversely, higher ambient temperatures, bundled installations, or poor ventilation would further reduce ampacity.
 Similar procedures apply to underground cable installations, with additional correction factors for soil thermal resistivity and depth.
Based on to IEC 60364-5-52, Solve the following Example:

Example 2: Determining the Minimum Cross-Sectional Area of a Copper Cable: Determine the minimum cross-sectional area of a 3-core
copper cable with PVC insulation, used to supply a constant load current of 135 A, given the following installation and environmental
conditions:

 Type of insulation: PVC

 Number of cores: 3-core cable
 Number of cables: 6 cables touching each other (grouped installation)
 Ambient temperature: 40°C
 Installation method: Type E (Cables installed on perforated tray in air)

Step 1: Identify the Reference Installation Type

According to IEC 60364-5-52:

Installation Type (E): Cables laid on a perforated tray or ladder rack in air.

This determines which base current-carrying capacity table (Table B.52.10) should be used for selecting the cable size.

Step 2: Identify the Correction (Derating) Factors

When actual installation conditions differ from the reference values, derating factors are applied to account for temperature and grouping
effects.

Condition Reference Actual Condition Derating Factor

Ambient temperature 30°C 40°C ( k1 = 0.87 ) (from IEC Table B.52.14 for PVC insulation)
Single 6 cables touching each
Cable grouping ( k2 = 0.76 ) (from IEC Table B.52.20)
cable other
Step 3: Calculate the Overall Derating Factor (K)

K = k1 * k2 = 0.87 * 0.76 = 0.6612

Step 4: Calculate the Required Base Ampacity (Ir)

The base current-carrying capacity of the cable must be greater than the load current, once the derating factors are applied.

𝐼𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 135
𝐼𝑟 = = = 204 𝐴
𝐾 0.6612

Thus, the selected cable must have a base ampacity (Ir) of at least 204 A under standard reference conditions.

Step 5: Select the Cable Cross-Sectional Area

Refer to IEC Table B.52.10 for PVC-insulated 3-core copper cables (Installation method E) at 30°C ambient temperature.

Since the required base ampacity is 204 A, the next standard size that satisfies this requirement is:

Cross-sectional area Base current-carrying

(mm²) capacity (A)
70 mm² 196 A
95 mm² 238 A
120 mm² 267 A

CSA: 95 mm²
Step 6: Verify the Derated Ampacity

Let’s check if the derated ampacity meets the load demand:

𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑟 × 𝐾 = 238 × 0.6612 = 157.36 𝐴

Since 157.36 A ≥ 135 A, the 95 mm² cable safely carries the load current under the given conditions.

Selected cable size 95 mm² Cu / PVC / 3-core

Additional Notes for Students

 Always apply correction (derating) factors before final cable selection to ensure safe operation and prevent overheating.
 Use IEC 60364-5-52 tables for standardized derating values.
 For cables installed in ground, additional factors (soil resistivity and depth) must also be considered.
 Cable selection must also meet voltage drop and short-circuit withstand criteria in detailed design.
Based on to IEC 60364-5-52, Solve the following Example:

Example 3 —Determine the minimum cross-sectional area (CSA) of a 3-core copper cable with XLPE insulation, buried directly in the
ground to feed a continuous load of 250 A. Use the following site/installation data:

 Number of cables (grouping): 3 cables in the same trench (mutually touching)

 Soil thermal resistivity: 4.0 K·m/W (dry soil)
 Burial depth: 1.2 m (measured from ground surface to cable center)
 Ground (soil) temperature: 30 °C

From Page 34, Installation method is D2.

For Cables Buried in Ground

Where:
Iz → Actual current-carrying capacity (A) under real conditions.
Ir → Rated current capacity (A) for a single cable buried in ground at 20°C reference temperature and standard soil resistivity (2.5 K·m/W).
k1 → Ground temperature correction factor (adjusts for soil temperature).
k2 → Grouping factor, to account for the mutual heating effect of adjacent cables.
k3 → Soil thermal resistivity correction factor, adjusts for the soil’s ability to conduct heat away.
k4 → Burial depth correction factor, accounts for variations in installation depth from the standard 0.8 m.

1. 𝐼𝑍 = 250 𝐴. Continuous load of 250 A

2. 𝐾1 = 0.93 , from page 56.

3. 𝐾2 = 0.65, from Page 58.

4. 𝐾3 = 0.8, from Page 56.
 5. 𝐾4 = 0.96,

(Reference tables used: Table B.52.5 / Table C.52.1 for reference Iz values for XLPE 3-core; Table B.52.16 for soil resistivity correction
factors; Table B.52.15 for ground temperature correction; Table B.52.18 for grouping factors for direct-buried cables.)

𝐼𝑍 = 250 = 𝐼𝑟 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 𝐾4 = 𝐼𝑟 × 0.93 × 0.65 × 0.8 × 0.96 = 𝐼𝑟 × 0.4642

250
𝐼𝑟 = = 386.9 𝐴
0.6462

From Page 46: 𝐼𝑟 ≥ 389.9 𝐴

The minimum cross-sectional area (CSA) = 300𝑚𝑚2
Based on to IEC 60364-5-52, Solve the following Example:

Example 4: For the following cable data:

 Two identical low-voltage cables, buried in the ground at depth 1.0 m, separation between them 0.25 m.
 Soil thermal resistivity = 1.5 K·m/W.
 Ambient (ground) temperature = 40 °C.
 Load current in each cable = 200 A (continuous).
 Cable type: Copper conductor, armored, PVC insulated, 3-core.
 Installation: Cable installed in conduit (i.e., in duct).

Determine the minimum cross-sectional area (CSA) of each cable (mm²).

Installation method is D1, From Page 34

𝐼𝑍 = 200
𝐼𝑟 =
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 𝐾4

1. 𝐼𝑍 = 200 𝐴. Continuous load of 200 A

2. 𝐾1 = 0.77 , From page 56 (Table B.52.15)
3. 𝐾2 = 0.9, From Page 59 (Table B.52.19)
4. 𝐾3 = 1.1, From Page 56 (Table B.52.16)
5. 𝐾4 = 0.98, (Table B.12)

200 200
𝐼𝑟 = = = 267.7 𝐴
0.77 × 0.9 × 1.1 × 0.98 0.747

From Page 46: 𝐼𝑟 ≥ 267.7 𝐴 . The minimum cross-sectional area (CSA) = 185 𝑚𝑚2
Example 5: For the following cable data:
 Cable type: 3-core PVC
 Cable cross-sectional area: 2.5 mm²
 Cable length: 32 meters
 Load: Water heater, 4.2 kW, single-phase, 230 V (assume standard voltage)
 Installation: Inside a small plastic mini-trunk (conduit), with another circuit, ambient temperature = 35 °C

Check if the cable is suitable; if not, determine the appropriate CSA.

𝑃 4200
 The load is a single-phase water heater: 𝐼𝑏 =𝑉= = 18.26 𝐴.
230
 Installation method is B2, From Page 34

𝐼𝑍 = 18.26
𝐼𝑟 =
𝐾1 𝐾2

1. 𝐼𝑍 = 18.26 𝐴. Continuous load of 18.26 A

2. 𝐾1 = 0.94 , From page 55 (Table B.52.14)
3. 𝐾2 = 0.8, From Page 57 (Table B.52.17)
18.26 18.26
`𝐼𝑟 = = = 24.3 𝐴
0.94 × 0.8 0.752
 From Page 45 (Table B.52.4): 𝐼𝑟 ≥ 24.3 𝐴 . The minimum cross-sectional area (CSA) = 4 𝑚𝑚2
 2.5 𝑚𝑚2 is not suitable.
Voltage drop check

Voltage drop must be within limits. For low-voltage circuits, the IEC recommends ≤ 3–5%.

Two-way length for single-phase circuit = phase + neutral = 2 × 32 m = 64 m

𝐿 64𝑚
1. 𝑅2.5𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜌 𝐴 = 1.724 × 10−8 Ω. 𝑚 2.5×10−6 𝑚2 = 0.442 Ω.

2. V𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑅 × 𝐼 = 0.442 × 18.26 = 8.06 Volts

V𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 8.06
3. × 100% = × 100% = 3.5% > 3% → Not accepted.
𝑉 230

𝐿 64𝑚
1. 𝑅4𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜌 𝐴 = 1.724 × 10−8 𝛺. 𝑚 4×10−6 𝑚2 = 0.276 𝛺.
2. 𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝑅 × 𝐼 = 0.276 × 18.26 = 5.04 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 5.04
3. × 100% = × 100% = 2.2% < 3% → within the recommended 3% limit.
𝑉 230

For 2.5 mm2: Using Tables

𝑉𝑎𝑏 × 𝐼 × 𝐿 13.166 × 18.26 × 32

𝑉𝑑 = = = 7.69 𝑉
1000 1000
V𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 7.98
× 100% = × 100% = 3.35% > 3% → Not accepted.
𝑉 230

For 4 mm2: Using Tables

𝑉𝑎𝑏 × 𝐼 × 𝐿 8.233 × 18.26 × 32

𝑉𝑑 = = = 4.81 𝑉
1000 1000
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 4.81
× 100% = × 100% = 2.09% < 3% → within the recommended 3% limit.
𝑉 230
Voltage Drop Calculation
1. Introduction

Utilities must deliver voltage to customers within an acceptable range. When current flows through conductors with impedance, voltage drop
occurs. Voltage drop is the reduction in voltage between the supply point and the utilization point. Excessive voltage drop affects equipment
performance, lighting efficiency, and motor operation.

2. Important Voltage Terms

 Nominal Voltage: System-designated voltage (230/400 V, 33 kV, etc.).

 Rated Voltage: Equipment nameplate voltage for optimal performance.
 Service Voltage: Voltage at the connection point between supplier and consumer (meter point).
 Utilization Voltage: Voltage at equipment terminals; normally lower due to internal facility voltage drop.

A 1% voltage drop can reduce tungsten lamp illumination by ~3%, and motor-driven appliances may perform poorly at low voltage.
3. Causes of Voltage Drop

Primary Causes

1. Undersized conductors → higher resistance.

2. Higher-than-designed circuit current → larger voltage drop.
3. Long conductor lengths → increased resistance.

Additional Factors

4. Conductor material: Copper < aluminum in resistance.

5. Temperature: Higher temperature increases conductor resistance.
6. Magnetic fields: Can induce currents that influence voltage drop.

4. Minimizing Voltage Drop

 Select proper conductor size.

 Ensure tight, high-quality connections.
 Keep cable routes short.
 Use higher-grade conductor materials when required.
 Reconfigure load locations.
 Use parallel feeders to reduce impedance.

5. Permissible Maximum Voltage Drop

Most electrical codes:

 3% maximum voltage drop in any feeder/branch circuit.

 5% total from supply point to utilization point.
6. Voltage Drop Calculation (Using mV/A/m Tables)

Formula:
𝑉𝑑 × 1000
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = (𝑚𝑉/𝐴/𝑚)
𝐼×𝐿

Where:

 𝑉𝑎𝑏 : Maximum allowable voltage drop per ampere per meter

 𝑉𝑑 : Maximum permitted voltage drop (𝑉)
 𝐼: Load current (𝐴)
 𝐿: Cable length (𝑚)

Used when cable size, insulation, and installation type are known and the tabulated (𝑚𝑉/𝐴/𝑚) values are provided by manufacturers.

Example: Determine the voltage drop, for a 4-core 10 mm2 cable with copper conductors and XLPE insulated, carrying a
load current of 20 A over 60 m route length.

𝑉𝑑 × 1000
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = (𝑚𝑉/𝐴/𝑚)
𝐼×𝐿

𝑉𝑎𝑏 × 𝐼 × 𝐿 3.53 × 20 × 60
𝑉𝑑 = = = 4.236 𝑉
1000 1000
𝑉𝑑 4.236
× 100% = × 100% = 1.84% < 3%
𝑉 230
7. General Cable Sizing Methodology

Cable sizing requires meeting three constraints:

1. Current-carrying capacity
2. Voltage drop limits
3. Short-circuit withstand capability

All cable sizing methods follow five standard steps:

Step 1: Data Gathering

Collect:

 Load type, phase, supply voltage, load current, power factor, cable length.
 Cable construction: number of cores, conductor material, insulation type, armoring.
 Installation conditions: buried vs. exposed, tray/wall/conduit, ambient/soil temperature, grouping, spacing, soil resistivity, depth,
trefoil vs. flat layout.

Step 2: Sizing Based on Current Rating

1. Determine maximum load current.

2. Apply derating factors for installation conditions.
3. Divide load current by correction factors to get required ampacity.
4. Select a cable whose tabulated ampacity ≥ required ampacity.

Step 3: Sizing Based on Voltage Drop

1. Determine load current (I) and route length (L).

2. Calculate maximum allowable voltage drop (3% of 230 or 400 V).
3. Calculate allowable mV/A/m using:
𝑉𝑑 × 1000
𝑉𝑎𝑏 = (𝑚𝑉/𝐴/𝑚)
𝐼×𝐿
 4. Select a cable with tabulated mV/A/m ≤ calculated (Vab).

Step 4: Sizing Based on Short-Circuit Current

1. Determine prospective short-circuit current (Isc) and fault duration (t).

2. Select a cable that withstands the fault:

𝑎 = 9𝐼𝑠𝑐 √𝑡 (𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 90° 𝐶)

𝑎 = 14.2𝐼𝑠𝑐 √𝑡 (𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑜 90° 𝐶)

Where:

 𝑎: minimum conductor area (mm²).

Cables must have a short-circuit rating ≥ calculated fault energy.

Example: Determine the minimum cross-sectional area of a copper cable for a short circuit current protection of a CB 20 kA, with an interrupting
time of 0.5 seconds.

𝑎 = 9𝐼𝑠𝑐 √𝑡 = 9 × 20 × √0.5 = 127 𝑚𝑚2

Choose 150 𝑚𝑚2 .

Step 5: Final Conductor Selection

The largest conductor size calculated from Steps 2, 3, and 4 is chosen.

 High-current / short-run systems → usually limited by current rating.

 Long-run / low-current systems → usually limited by voltage drop.
 Short-circuit constraints rarely control LV cable size unless high Isc is present.

Example: This example based on Alfanar manufacturer values

Specialized Cables and Overhead Lines
ABC Cables (Aerial Bundled Cables)

 Definition:
Overhead distribution cables where several insulated aluminum phase conductors are
tightly bundled around a bare or insulated neutral, replacing traditional bare conductors
separated by air.

 Applications: Secondary distribution on poles; service feeders to residential and commercial

areas; ideal in dense or tree-covered regions.

 Advantages:

 High safety: Insulation minimizes arcing, outages, and accidental contact.

 Reduced maintenance: Less corrosion, fewer faults from wind contact or trees.
 Better performance: Lower technical losses and improved voltage regulation compared to bare conductors.

 Disadvantages:

 Higher material and installation cost.

 Heavier bundle → stronger poles and tension hardware required.

 Design Notes:

 Installed on wooden/concrete/steel poles using special clamps and anchoring devices.

 Recommended for urban, semi-urban, and theft-prone areas due to improved safety and reliability.
Overhead Transmission Lines

 Definition: High-voltage lines consisting of conductors, insulators, towers/poles, and often shield wires for lightning protection.
 Conductors:

 Aluminum vs. Copper: Aluminum dominates due to its light weight, lower cost, and good conductivity; larger cross-
section compensates for higher resistivity.
 ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel-Reinforced): Aluminum layers around a strong steel core → high conductivity +
excellent mechanical strength; standard choice for long spans and high voltages.

 Key Components

 Insulators: Prevent leakage and support high mechanical tension.

 Support structures: Lattice towers or poles designed for conductor tension, wind load, and ground clearance.
 Shield wires: Divert lightning currents and improve line reliability.

 Design Considerations

 Conductor size depends on current rating, allowable sag, ambient temperature, and mechanical stresses (wind/ice).
 Towers must withstand electrical clearances, mechanical loads, and environmental conditions.
Bus Ducts (Busways)

 Definition: Metal-enclosed assemblies containing insulated copper or aluminum bus bars used for
distributing large currents in buildings or industrial plants.
 Applications: High-current vertical risers in tall buildings; industrial power distribution; installations
requiring multiple tap-offs.
 Advantages:

 Compact and organized: Smaller footprint than multiple parallel cables.

 Flexible distribution: Easy branching via tap-off units.

 Disadvantages:

 Reliability depends on joints and bends → potential failure points if poorly installed.
 Requires precise alignment and structural support due to weight.

 Design Notes:

 All joints must be mechanically reinforced and sealed for thermal expansion.
 Preferred where current is high and space is limited; cables preferred when continuous, splice-free runs are needed.

Summary Table: Comparison of Transmission Media

Feature ABC Cable Overhead Transmission Line Bus Duct
Conductor Type Insulated Al/Cu Aluminum / ACSR Copper or aluminum bus bars
Typical Use Secondary distribution High-voltage transmission High-current indoor distribution
Insulation PVC/XLPE (phases insulated) None (air acts as insulation) Solid insulation within metal enclosure
Safety High (insulated) Moderate Moderate (enclosed but joint-dependent)
Maintenance Low Moderate Moderate to high at joints
Installation Complexity Moderate High (towers, clearance) High (prefabricated, heavy sections)
Cost Higher than bare conductors Moderate Higher initial cost
Short Circuit Analysis
1. Introduction

Electrical power systems operate in three conditions:

 Normal State: System operates within rated limits, ensuring full equipment life.
 Abnormal State: Temporary operation outside limits, accelerating aging but not immediately damaging.
 Faulted State: Severe system stress due to insulation failure, natural hazards, or mechanical causes.

A fault is an unintended connection or failure that causes high short-circuit current. Insulation breakdown may result from lightning, switching
surges, contamination, physical damage, or equipment aging.

Short-circuit currents can be thousands of times larger than normal operating currents and may cause:

 Thermal damage to cables, windings, and equipment.

 Mechanical damage to conductors and bus bars due to magnetic forces.
To protect equipment, faulted sections must be isolated quickly using protection devices.

2. Effects of Faults on Power Systems

During a fault:

 Currents sharply increase.

 Voltages collapse at and near the fault point.
 Frequency may deviate in weak systems.

System consequences include:

 Equipment damage or destruction.

 Voltage disturbances across the network.
 Arc flash hazards, fires, explosions.
 Reduced system stability and risk of blackouts.
3. Why Fault (Short-Circuit) Analysis Is Needed

Short-circuit studies evaluate bus voltages, fault currents, and equipment stress levels to support:

Key Applications

1. System design: Selecting suitable switchgear and equipment ratings.

2. Protection relay settings: Calculating pickup currents, time delays, and coordination.
3. System coordination: Ensuring protective devices operate in the correct sequence.
4. Industrial systems: Sizing conductors, breakers, fuses, MCCs, and motor feeders.

4. Causes of Electrical Faults

Faults can result from:

Environmental causes

 Lightning, wind, heavy rain, snow, dust, pollution.

External contacts

 Trees touching conductors.

 Animals such as birds or snakes bridging phases.

Equipment issues

 Overloading, insulation aging, overheating, mechanical stress.

Human-origin causes

 Wiring errors, maintenance mistakes, or vehicle impacts on poles.

5. Consequences of Faults

When a fault occurs:

 Current becomes extremely high.

 Voltage collapses near the fault point.
Potential outcomes:
 Severe damage to transformers, cables, switchgear.
 Thermal and mechanical stresses.
 Arc explosions or fires.
 System instability or widespread outages.

6. Short-Circuit Calculation – Simplified Method

𝑉
Short-circuit current can be approximated using the system short-circuit impedance: 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1.05 𝑍
𝑆𝐶

Used for quick estimation at different locations, this method assumes a simple one-source system with known impedance.

Example: Calculate the short circuit current at:

1. Secondary side of the transformer

2. Main panel
3. Floor panel
4. Apartment panel

1) Secondary side of the transformer: 𝑆𝑇 = 1 𝑀𝑉𝐴, 𝑉 = 400 𝑉, 𝑍𝑝.𝑢 = 6% = 0.06.

𝑉2 4002
𝑍𝑇 = 𝑍𝑝.𝑢 × = 0.06 × = 0.0096 Ω.
𝑆𝑇 1 × 106

𝑉 400
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1.05 = 1.05 × = 43,750 𝐴.
𝑍𝑆𝐶 0.0096
2) Main panel:

𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙1 = |𝑅240 + 𝑗𝑋240 | = |5 × 0.00016 + 𝑗5 × 0.00008| = |0.0008 + 𝑗0.0004| = √0.00082 + 0.00042 = 0.0008944 Ω.

𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑇 + 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙1 = 0.0096 + 0.0008944 = 0.0105 Ω.

𝑉 400
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1.05 = 1.05 × = 40,000 𝐴.
𝑍𝑆𝐶 0.0105

3) Floor panel:

𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙2 = 15 × 0.00063 = 0.00945 Ω.

𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑇 + 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙1 + 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙2 = 0.0096 + 0.0008944 + 0.00945 = 0.01994 Ω.

𝑉 400
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1.05 = 1.05 × = 21,058 𝐴.
𝑍𝑆𝐶 0.019944

4) Apartment panel:

𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙3 = 10 × 0.00086 = 0.0086 Ω.

𝑍𝑆𝐶 = 𝑍𝑇 + 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙1 + 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙2 + 𝑍𝐶𝑎𝑏𝑙3 = 0.0096 + 0.0008944 + 0.00945 + 0.0086 = 0.02855 Ω.

𝑉 400
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = 1.05 = 1.05 × = 14,714 𝐴.
𝑍𝑆𝐶 0.02855
7. Short-Circuit Calculation – MVA Method

The MVA method expresses system impedances in terms of short-circuit MVA, which simplifies calculations across transformers, lines, and
machines.

Concept

Maximum current (or kVA) delivered to a bolted fault from an infinite bus at 1 p.u. voltage.

Formulas

𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑉2
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 = , 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 =
𝑍𝑝.𝑢. 𝑍

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 × 103
𝐼𝑆𝐶 = (kA)
√3𝑉𝐿

Advantages

 Easy combination of series/parallel networks.

 Eliminates repeated base conversions if done correctly.
 Simplifies motor contribution inclusion.
Example – Fault at Motor Terminals (MVA Method)
Steps typically include:

1. Convert all components (source, transformer, line, motor) to short-

circuit MVA.
2. Combine impedances to find total fault MVA at the motor bus.

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 = (𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎−𝟏 +𝟏𝟐𝟑𝟎−𝟏 + 𝟏𝟗𝟖−𝟏 )−𝟏 + 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖

3. Convert short-circuit MVA to fault current using:

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 × 103 𝟐𝟖𝟖 × 103

𝐼𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 = = = 10,97 𝑘𝐴
√3𝑉𝐿 √3 × 12

This provides symmetrical three-phase fault current.

Example: Calculate the short circuit current at the motor terminals using MVA method

𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑆𝐶 × 103 𝟖𝟖 × 103

𝐼𝑆𝐶 = = = 25.93 𝑘𝐴.
√3𝑉𝐿 √3 × 2.4
Assignment: For this network, find the short circuit MVA and fault current values fed to the symmetrical fault between phases if it occurs at:

1. The high voltage terminals of the transformer F1

2. The load end of the transmission line F2.