.
S. Fakher and A. Imqam (2020) conducted an experimental study to investigate the dual
interactions of immiscible CO₂ injection with crude oil, focusing on oil swelling and asphaltene
instability. The study examined the effects of CO₂ injection pressure, reservoir temperature, and
crude oil viscosity on these interactions. Results demonstrated that oil swelling increased with
higher pressure and lower oil viscosity but decreased with elevated temperature due to reduced
CO₂ solubility. Conversely, asphaltene instability intensified at higher temperatures and lower
pressures, leading to increased deposition risks. Lower viscosity crude oils exhibited enhanced
oil recovery and reduced asphaltene-related damage. The experiments utilized pressure decay
and filtration methods to quantify swelling and asphaltene stability, revealing that optimal
conditions for maximizing recovery while minimizing asphaltene deposition involve high-
pressure, low-temperature operations with low-viscosity oils. The study underscored the
importance of balancing favorable oil swelling mechanisms against asphaltene-induced
formation damage, providing practical insights for designing immiscible CO₂ injection strategies
in asphaltene-prone reservoirs. The authors emphasized the need for reservoir-specific
assessments of thermodynamic and fluid properties to mitigate operational challenges.
L. Wang et al. (2022) conducted an experimental investigation to evaluate the effectiveness of
CO₂ flooding for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in heavy oil reservoirs. The study focused on the
impact of CO₂ injection on the physical properties of heavy oil, particularly viscosity reduction
and oil expansion, which are critical mechanisms for improving oil recovery. Through a series of
12 oil displacement experiments, the authors examined the effects of injection sequence, slug
size, gas injection rate, and soaking time on oil recovery. The results demonstrated that gas-water
alternative injection (WAG) outperformed continuous water or CO₂ flooding, increasing ultimate
oil recovery by 8.9% and 12.7%, respectively. Larger CO₂ slugs were found to enhance oil
recovery, while the injection rate had a minimal impact on the final recovery factor.
Additionally, longer soaking times improved recovery, with significant gains observed up to 24
hours, after which further increases were negligible. The study concluded that CO₂ flooding is a
viable method for EOR in heavy oil reservoirs, particularly when combined with water injection,
and highlighted the importance of optimizing operational parameters such as slug size and
soaking time to maximize recovery efficiency. The findings provide valuable insights for the
development of heavy oil reservoirs, particularly in offshore settings, and contribute to the
broader application of CO₂-EOR technologies in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
A. Hemmati-Sarapardeh et al. (2014) experimentally investigated the interfacial tension (IFT)
and miscibility behavior of CO₂-crude oil systems under varying temperatures, pressures, and
compositional conditions. Utilizing axisymmetric drop shape analysis (ADSA) and the vanishing
interfacial tension (VIT) technique, the study measured equilibrium IFT values and determined
minimum miscibility pressures (MMP) and first-contact miscibility pressures
(\(P_{\text{max}}\)) for two crude oil samples. Key findings revealed that IFT decreased with
temperature at low pressures (0.68–6.89 MPa) but exhibited an inverse trend at higher pressures
due to reduced CO₂ solubility in crude oil. Both MMP and \(P_{\text{max}}\) increased linearly
with temperature, with \(P_{\text{max}}\) rising more sharply (0.24 MPa/K) than MMP (0.11
MPa/K), attributed to declining slopes of IFT-pressure relationships at elevated temperatures.
Compositional analysis highlighted the critical role of paraffins in governing IFT behavior, as
slopes of IFT-pressure correlations aligned closely with those of pure hydrocarbon-CO₂ systems.
A lower resin-to-asphaltene ratio in crude oil B (0.13 vs. 0.97 in crude oil A) elevated asphaltene
precipitation risks, marked by abrupt IFT increases at 4.13 MPa. The study also demonstrated
that higher molecular weights of heavy crude oil components correlated with elevated MMP
values, emphasizing the need for reservoir-specific assessments of temperature, pressure, and
composition in CO₂ flooding design. These insights advance the optimization of miscible CO₂
injection strategies for enhanced oil recovery while mitigating asphaltene-related operational
challenges.
Waqar Ahmad et al. (2016) conducted a comparative study to evaluate experimental methods for
determining the minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) of CO₂ with crude oil using slim tube and
vanishing interfacial tension (VIT) techniques. Two crude oil samples (M and N), in both live
(recombined) and dead (stock tank) forms, were analyzed. The results showed that VIT-
measured MMP values for live oils closely matched slim tube-derived MMPs, with deviations of
6.4% and 5% for samples M and N, respectively. However, VIT exhibited significantly higher
deviations (16–19%) for dead oils, attributed to the stability of heavier hydrocarbon fractions and
insufficient multiple-contact miscibility development. The study also assessed nine existing
MMP correlations for CO₂-crude oil systems. Most correlations failed to predict MMP
accurately, with deviations exceeding 20% in many cases. Only the Shokir correlation performed
relatively well for sample N, showing an 8.85% deviation. The authors concluded that VIT is a
reliable, cost-effective alternative to slim tube experiments for live oils, but its application to
dead oils requires further investigation into the destabilization mechanisms of heavy fractions.
They emphasized the limitations of current correlations, which lack generalizability beyond the
datasets used in their development. The findings underscore the importance of experimental
validation for MMP determination, particularly for stock tank oils, and highlight the need for
improved predictive models incorporating compositional and thermodynamic factors.
S.I. Eytayo et al. (2024) experimentally investigated the effects of CO₂ injection strategies on
rock wettability alteration for carbon capture and storage (CCS) applications. The study
evaluated three injection methods—continuous supercritical CO₂ (scCO₂) injection (CCI), water-
alternating-gas (WAG), and simultaneous water and scCO₂ injection (SAI)—on gray Berea
sandstone and Indiana limestone under simulated reservoir conditions (1500 psi injection
pressure, 100°F temperature). Wettability changes were quantified using sessile drop contact
angle (CA) measurements before and after core flooding experiments. Results demonstrated a
shift toward CO₂-wet conditions for both rock types, with sandstone exhibiting a 32–77% CA
increase under CCI (most pronounced at 168-hour exposure) and WAG showing the least
alteration (29.6% CA change). Limestone displayed greater sensitivity to WAG and SAI, with
CA increases of 9–49%, attributed to its chemical reactivity. The study highlighted the
importance of rock-specific strategy selection: WAG minimized wettability alteration in
sandstone, preserving water-wet conditions critical for capillary trapping, while SAI enhanced
interactions in limestone. These findings underscore the need to tailor injection protocols to
geological formations to optimize CO₂ storage efficiency and containment security. The authors
recommended further research on long-term wettability stability, mineralogical changes, and
brine chemistry effects to refine CCS implementation.
Steel et al. (2016) conducted a detailed review of experimental and geochemical modeling
methods for measuring CO2 solubility in brine under reservoir conditions. The study compared
various experimental techniques and emphasized the critical role of selecting the appropriate
equation of state (EOS) for accurate geochemical modeling. The authors identified the
Valderrama-Patel-Teja (VPT) EoS as the most suitable for systems involving polar and non-
polar compounds, such as CO2 and brine. They concluded that the experimental procedure
developed by Tong et al. (2013) provided the most accurate measurements of CO2 solubility
under reservoir conditions. The study highlighted the importance of CO2 solubility in both
CO2geological storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR), noting that solubility trapping is a key
mechanism for secure and long-term CO2storage. The authors also compared several
geochemical models, including PHREEQC, HydraFLASH, and the Duan and Sun CO2 solubility
model, and found that HydraFLASH, when using the VPT EoS, could achieve accuracy
comparable to the Duan and Sun model for CO2-water and 2-water-salt systems. This work
underscores the need for precise experimental methods and appropriate EoS selection to improve
the reliability of CO2 solubility predictions in reservoir conditions.
Nader Mosavat et al. (2014) conducted experimental studies to analyze the phase behavior of
CO₂–brine and CO₂–oil systems under conditions relevant to CO₂ storage and enhanced oil
recovery (EOR). The study measured CO₂ solubility in pure water, brine (20,000 ppm NaCl),
and light crude oil, as well as oil swelling factors, across pressures (0.7–10.3 MPa) and
temperatures (21–40°C). Key findings revealed that CO₂ solubility in brine and oil increased
with pressure but decreased with rising temperature. Salinity reduced CO₂ solubility in brine due
to the salting-out effect, with pure water exhibiting 1.1029 mole/kg CO₂ solubility compared to
0.9738 mole/kg in brine at 25°C and 4.1 MPa. For CO₂–oil systems, the oil swelling factor (SF)
initially rose with pressure, peaking at an extraction pressure (Pₑₓₜ), beyond which SF declined as
light hydrocarbons were extracted into the CO₂-rich phase. Pₑₓₜ increased linearly with
temperature, ranging from 6.0 MPa at 21°C to 7.8 MPa at 40°C. A critical threshold CO₂
solubility (χₜₕ ≈ 33.21 g CO₂/100 g oil) was identified, marking the onset of significant
hydrocarbon extraction and remaining constant across temperatures. CO₂ solubility in oil
correlated well with predictions from Emera and Sarma’s correlation, while brine solubility data
aligned moderately with the Duan et al. model. The study emphasized the interdependence of
pressure, temperature, and fluid composition in optimizing CO₂-EOR and storage. Higher
pressures enhanced solubility and swelling, but elevated temperatures required higher Pₑₓₜ to
achieve χₜₕ. These insights underscore the need to tailor operational parameters to reservoir-
specific conditions for effective hydrocarbon recovery and CO₂ sequestration. The authors
highlighted the necessity of experimental validation to complement predictive models,
particularly for complex fluid interactions under varying subsurface environments.
Ghoodjani and Bolouri (2011) conducted an experimental study to evaluate the effects of CO₂
and N₂ injection on relative permeability during enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes. Using
core flood experiments on carbonate and sandstone cores under controlled temperature (46°C)
and pressure (2000 psi), they compared oil and gas relative permeability, recovery factors, and
differential pressure trends. Results demonstrated that CO₂ injection significantly enhanced oil
relative permeability compared to N₂, particularly at low oil saturations (e.g., oil relative
permeability ratio of CO₂/N₂ reached up to 2.5 in carbonate cores). This improvement was
attributed to CO₂-induced mechanisms, including interfacial tension (IFT) reduction (from
11.868 to 8.639 dyne/cm), oil viscosity reduction (from 1.0509 to 0.735 cP), and oil swelling
(swelling factor of 1.1022). These mechanisms collectively lowered residual oil saturation and
improved displacement efficiency, yielding higher recovery factors for CO₂ (e.g., 15–20% higher
than N₂ after 4 pore volumes injected). Conversely, gas relative permeability for N₂ surpassed
CO₂ at high gas saturations due to earlier single-phase flow dominance in N₂ injection, leading to
higher gas production (e.g., 30–40% more gas volume recovered with N₂). Differential pressure
across cores was consistently lower in CO₂ injection due to reduced oil viscosity and IFT, while
N₂ injection exhibited pressure peaks in carbonate cores caused by gas compressibility. The
study emphasized CO₂’s superiority in improving recovery through multiphase flow
enhancement and highlighted the role of rock type, as sandstone cores showed earlier gas
breakthrough and distinct pressure trends. These findings underscore the importance of relative
permeability dynamics in optimizing gas-based EOR strategies
Okhovat et al. (2020) conducted experimental investigations to assess the impact of CO₂-brine-
rock interactions on permeability alteration and oil recovery during CO₂-enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) in carbonate reservoirs. Core-flood experiments were performed under varying injection
rates (10–30 cc/h), miscible/immiscible conditions (1000–2700 psi), secondary/tertiary recovery
modes, and connate water salinities (40,000–130,000 ppm). Results revealed that higher
injection rates exacerbated permeability damage (e.g., permeability reduced to 35% of initial
value at 30 cc/h vs. negligible change at 10 cc/h), while miscible CO₂ injection achieved superior
oil recovery (up to 95% vs. 60% in immiscible mode) due to enhanced pore accessibility.
Tertiary recovery tests under miscible conditions yielded 68% recovery compared to 52% in
immiscible mode, with minimal permeability alteration despite intensified chemical reactions,
attributed to neutralized dissolution-precipitation effects in coarse pores. Elevated brine salinity
(130,000 ppm) reduced reaction severity, resulting in lower permeability damage (94% retained
permeability vs. 35% at 40,000 ppm) and slightly diminished recovery (80% vs. 95%). The study
underscored the critical influence of injection rate, miscibility, and salinity on CO₂-induced
permeability dynamics, highlighting risks of near-wellbore damage at high rates and the
stabilizing role of saline connate water. These findings emphasize the need to optimize
operational parameters to balance recovery efficiency and injectivity preservation in carbonate
reservoirs.
Alfarge et al. (2017) conducted a comprehensive data analysis to evaluate the feasibility of CO₂-
enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in shale-oil reservoirs using laboratory data from 95 natural
preserved core samples, primarily from the Bakken Petroleum System. The study examined the
impact of 10 parameters—including rock properties (porosity, permeability, total organic carbon
content [TOC], pore throat radius, oil/water saturation) and operational factors (exposure time,
core size, pressure, temperature)—on recovery factor (RF) during CO₂ injection. Sensitivity
analysis via Design of Experiments (DOE) revealed that TOC and exposure time were the most
critical parameters, with TOC inversely affecting RF (e.g., RF decreased by ~13% per log-unit
increase in TOC) due to oil-wet kerogen hindering CO₂-oil interaction. Conversely, longer
exposure times (up to 30 hours) enhanced RF (e.g., 95% in miscible vs. 60% in immiscible tests)
by facilitating molecular diffusion, the dominant transport mechanism in nano-pore systems.
Smaller core samples (bulk volumes <15 cm³) exhibited higher RF (e.g., 85% in Eagle Ford
cores), emphasizing the need for natural fractures to maximize CO₂-oil contact in field
applications. While permeability and porosity showed weak positive correlations with RF
(R²<20%), elevated water saturation (up to 30%) improved recovery by promoting CO₂-oil
miscibility. Pressure and temperature variations (1000–2700 psi; 230°F) had negligible effects,
likely due to limited experimental ranges. The study concluded that CO₂-EOR in shale reservoirs
requires optimized exposure times, low TOC, and fracture networks to counterbalance diffusion-
dominated flow, contrasting conventional convection-driven mechanisms. These insights
underscore the need for tailored operational strategies to enhance recovery in ultra-low
permeability shale systems.
Sun et al. (2016) conducted experimental and numerical studies to evaluate CO₂-enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) mechanisms in unconventional liquid reservoirs (ULR) with nano-Darcy matrix
permeability and complex fracture networks. Core-scale simulations (1–3 cm³ bulk volume)
under miscible (3000 psi) and immiscible (1600 psi) conditions demonstrated diffusion as the
dominant recovery mechanism, achieving up to 95% recovery in miscible tests. Sensitivity
analysis revealed recovery factors (RF) were highly sensitive to matrix porosity (e.g., RF
increased by 30% when porosity doubled from 6% to 12%) and diffusion coefficients (21.81%
RF at ×10 diffusion vs. 3.43% at ×0.1), but insensitive to matrix permeability (0.0001–0.001
mD). Field-scale simulations using dual-permeability models highlighted gas expansion and
multi-contact miscibility as critical mechanisms, with huff-n-puff processes yielding incremental
recovery (1.64–10%) depending on operational parameters. Below bubble point pressure (1000
psi), RF increased by 10% due to gas drive effects, while higher pressures (2000 psi) showed
minimal gains (1.68%). Complex fracture networks, modeled using microseismic-constrained
stochastic methods, demonstrated modest incremental production (438.6 STB over 5000 days)
due to limited CO₂ penetration into ultra-low permeability matrices. The study emphasized
contrasts between lab-scale diffusion dominance and field-scale convection-driven recovery,
underscoring the need for optimized injection timing, pressure, and fracture network connectivity
to enhance CO₂-EOR efficacy in ULR.
C.A. Fauziah et al. (2021) investigated the impact of CO₂ flooding on the wettability evolution of
sandstone under reservoir conditions. Through laboratory core flooding experiments at pressures
of 10 MPa and 15 MPa and a temperature of 323 K, the authors measured advancing and
receding contact angles before and after CO₂ exposure, alongside microstructural analyses using
SEM and XRD. The study revealed that CO₂ flooding increased the CO₂-wettability of both
Berea (low clay content) and Bandera Gray (high clay content) sandstones, evidenced by higher
contact angles post-flooding. Advancing and receding contact angles further rose with increasing
pressure, aligning with existing literature. Bandera Gray exhibited greater CO₂-wettability than
Berea, attributed to its higher clay content, which promotes CO₂ adsorption and mineral
interactions (e.g., albite dissolution and kaolinite precipitation). While XRD showed minimal
mineralogical changes, SEM highlighted pore-filling clay redistribution and surface alterations.
These wettability shifts enhance vertical CO₂ migration and solubility trapping but reduce
residual trapping capacity, posing challenges for containment in high-permeability reservoirs.
Conversely, in low-permeability formations, increased CO₂-wettability may improve pressure
management if effective cap-rock sealing exists. The study underscores the critical role of clay
content, pressure, and mineral reactivity in wettability evolution, emphasizing their implications
for CO₂ injectivity, plume behavior, and long-term storage security in geological carbon
sequestration projects.
X. Zhou et al. (2019) evaluated the performance of CO₂ flooding in tight oil reservoirs through
experimental and numerical simulations. The study tested three CO₂ injection schemes—
continuous flooding, flooding with soaking periods, and flooding with pressure maintenance—
using 1-meter-long heterogeneous core plugs. Experimental results demonstrated that continuous
CO₂ flooding achieved the highest oil recovery factor (38.96%) and optimal CO₂ utilization
(10.41 Mscf/STB), attributed to enhanced oil viscosity reduction, swelling, and gas drive
mechanisms. Numerical simulations using WinProp and GEM modules validated experimental
data and revealed that higher injection pressures and rates improved recovery but increased CO₂
consumption. Sensitivity analyses identified relative permeability curves and reservoir
heterogeneity as critical factors influencing production, while capillary pressure and CO₂
solubility in brine had minimal impact. Field-scale simulations optimized the inverted seven-spot
well pattern with a CO₂ injection rate of 44.28 t/day/well, yielding a 30.89% recovery factor and
reduced CO₂ utilization (5.69 Mscf/STB). The study emphasized the efficacy of continuous CO₂
flooding in tight formations and highlighted the role of numerical models in scaling laboratory
insights to field applications. Key recommendations included prioritizing injection pressure
optimization and selecting well patterns that mitigate heterogeneity effects to balance recovery
efficiency with CO₂ storage and utilization.
F.D. Tovar et al. (2014) experimentally investigated CO₂-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in ultra-
low permeability unconventional liquid reservoirs (ULRs) using preserved shale cores with
nanodarcy matrix permeability. To simulate hydraulic fractures, the cores were surrounded by
high-permeability glass beads and subjected to CO₂ injection at 150°F under two pressures (3000
psi and 1600 psi). X-ray computed tomography (CT) tracked saturation changes, while
intermittent production cycles allowed oil recovery measurement. Key findings revealed oil
recovery estimates of 18–55% of OOIP, attributed to hydrocarbon vaporization into CO₂ and
reduced capillary forces. CT imaging showed density shifts, with higher-pressure experiments
exhibiting increased CT numbers (indicating CO₂ dissolution and matrix penetration), while
lower-pressure tests displayed decreased CT numbers due to immiscible conditions. Unexpected
core mass gain (0.06–0.07 g) suggested CO₂ adsorption onto organic shale components,
supported by post-experiment mass loss during depressurization. Challenges included unknown
porosity (assumed 0.3–0.6%) and potential water saturation effects. The study highlighted CO₂’s
dual role in EOR and storage via adsorption, particularly in organic-rich shales. Future work
proposed continuous CO₂ injection, numerical modeling, and analysis of rock heterogeneity to
optimize field-scale applications, such as multi-fractured horizontal wells. The research
underscores CO₂’s viability for ULRs, emphasizing vaporization and diffusion as dominant
mechanisms, while advocating for further investigation into adsorption dynamics and economic
feasibility compared to cyclic "huff-and-puff" methods.