Chapter2: Literature Review and Theoretical

Background
2.1 Introduction
With the increasing demand for energy resulting from hydrogen fuel, carbon dioxide emissions
have become more, which leads to an increase in global warming and an increase in global
temperatures, as this gas is primary greenhouse gases. Therefore, many countries have resorted
to reducing these emissions by storing the gas underground in geological formations. Therefore,
two benefits emerged here: enhancing oil recovery using carbon dioxide gas and storing it
through co2-EOR and storage processes.

This chapter contains pieces of research exploring the scientific, technical and computational
developments that support CO2-enhanced oil recovery and storage. The chapter begins with
laboratory studies, where the mechanisms involved such as oil swelling, viscosity reduction,
surface tension dynamics, and physical and chemical interactions that determine the behavior of
carbon dioxide in reservoirs are elucidated. These mechanisms are important to improve
extraction efficiency while reducing risks.

The study then moves on to simulation studies, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the
programs used, such as CMG, Eclipse E300, and TOUGH2. Simulations reduce the difference
between laboratory results and real-world applications, providing predictive capabilities for tank
performance, CO2 column migration, and long-term storage security. However, challenges such
as computational limitations and overly simplistic assumptions underscore the need for
continuous improvement.

Finally, the chapter turns to the role of artificial intelligence in bringing about significant
changes in the oil industry in CO2-enhanced oil recovery. From predicting minimum miscible
pressure (MMP) with neural networks to well placement optimization with genetic algorithms,
artificial intelligence and machine learning are redefining traditional methods .These
technologies enhance decision-making accuracy, reduce costs, and enable real-time adjustments,
though their reliance on data quality and interpretability remains a focal point for future research.

By informing and examining experimental, simulation, field, and AI-based researches, this
chapter provides a comprehensive foundation for understanding the complexities of CO2-EOR
and storage. It is important to highlight the progress made in this field
2.2 Experimental Studies: Lab-Scale Investigations and Theory
Carbon dioxide enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR) and carbon dioxide storage have gained
significant attention due to the dual benefit they provide of improving oil recovery while storing
carbon dioxide, which reduces greenhouse gas emissions. Laboratory studies play a major role in
understanding the mechanics of the CO2 EOR process, providing insight into the complex
interactions between CO2, reservoir fluids and rocks. Here the reviews of the key mechanisms
investigated in experimental studies, including oil swelling, viscosity reduction, interfacial
tension (IFT) reduction, miscibility development, wettability alteration, CO2 dissolution. The
findings from these studies are discussed to highlight its effects on field applications.

2.2.1 PVT Experiments and Phase Behavior Theory

The phase behavior of CO₂-oil systems is governed by thermodynamic models such as the Peng-
Robinson equation of state (PR-EOS):

P = {RT}/{v - b} - {a(T)}/{v(v + b) + b(v - b)}

where (a(T)) and (b) are fluid-specific parameters, (R) is the gas constant, and (v) is molar
volume.

Both S. Fakher and A. Maqam (2020) conducted a laboratory study to investigate the coupled
reactions of injecting immiscible carbon dioxide with crude oil, with a focus on oil swelling. The
study examined the effects of carbon dioxide injection pressure, reservoir temperature, and crude
oil viscosity on these reactions. From the results, it was concluded that oil swelling increases
with high pressure and low oil viscosity, but decreases with high temperature due to low
solubility of carbon dioxide. Low viscosity crude oils have demonstrated enhanced oil recovery
and reduced problems associated with asphalt. Experiments used pressure drop and filtration
methods to measure oil swelling, showing that the best conditions for achieving the best recovery
while minimizing asphaltene accumulation include high-pressure, low-temperature operations
using low-viscosity oils. The study stressed the importance of balancing appropriate oil swelling
mechanisms with formation damage caused by asphaltene, which provides good insight into
designing strategies for injecting immiscible carbon dioxide into asphaltene-prone reservoirs
 Figure1: co2 phase digram(arshad raza 2019)

2.2.2 Core Flooding and Displacemet Efficiency Theory

The addition of carbon dioxide to the oil decreases its viscosity, enhancing its flow through the
resevoir. Core flooding experiments were conducted to assess the changes in oil viscosity and
flow rates with CO2 injection. The Buckley-Leverett fractional flow theory predicts
displacement efficiency in porous media:

f_w = { λw}/{λw + λo}

where (fw) is the fractional flow of water, and (λ), ( λo) are the mobilities of water and oil.

L. Wang et al. (2022) conducted a laboratory study to evaluate the effectiveness of CO2 gas
flooding for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in high-viscosity oil reservoirs. The study focused on
the change that occurs in the physical properties of heavy oil as a result of carbon dioxide
injection, especially reducing viscosity. The researchers conducted 12 oil displacement
experiments to investigate how various factors affect oil recovery, including the injection
sequence, slug size, gas injection rate, and soaking time. The findings revealed that water-
alternating gas (WAG) injection outperformed continuous water or CO2 flooding, resulting in an
increase in ultimate oil recovery by 8.9% and 12.7%, respectively. Additionally, larger CO2
slugs were found to enhance oil recovery, while the injection rate had minimal impact on the
recovery factor. The study found that longer soaking times resulted in improved performance,
concluding that CO2 flooding is an effective method for enhanced oil recovery in heavy oil
reservoirs, particularly when combined with water injection. It emphasized the importance of
optimizing operational parameters like slug size and soaking time to maximize recovery
efficiency. These results offer valuable insights for developing heavy oil reservoirs, especially in
offshore regions.

2.2.3 core fooding and minimum miscible pressure prediction

CO2 used for reduce the interfacial tension between the oil and water, this will improve oil
displacement efficiency. IFT is measured using pendant drop or spinning drop tensiometers
under reservoir conditions. vanishing interfacial tension

MMP= P

A. Hemmati Sarabardeh et al. (2014) conducted an experiment to investigate the interfacial

tension (IFT) and miscibility behavior of crude oil–CO2 systems under different temperatures,
pressures, and compositional conditions. Axisymmetric drop shape analysis (ADSA) and
vanishing surface tension technique (VIT) were used , Equilibrium IFT values were measured
and minimum miscible pressures (MMP) and first contact miscible pressures (Pmax) were
determined for two crude oil samples. The results showed that IFT decreased with temperature at
low pressures (0.68-6.89 MPa), but showed a reverse trend at higher pressures. The reason for
this is the decrease in solubility of carbon dioxide in crude oil. The slopes of IFT pressure
relationships decrease at high temperatures. Compositional analysis demonstrated the critical
role of paraffins in controlling IFT behavior, as the slopes of IFT pressure correlations closely
matched those of pure hydrocarbon-CO₂ systems. The lower resin-to-asphaltene ratio in Crude
Oil B (0.13 versus 0.97 in Crude Oil A) resulted in a higher risk of asphaltene precipitation,
which was characterized by sudden IFT increases at 4.13 MPa. The study also demonstrated that
higher molecular weights of heavy crude oil components correlated with elevated MMP values,
emphasizing the need for reservoir-specific assessments of temperature, pressure, and
composition in CO₂ flooding design. These insights advance the optimization of miscible CO₂
injection strategies for enhanced oil recovery while mitigating asphaltene-related operational
challenges.

Waqar Ahmed et al. (2016) conducted a comparative study to evaluate experimental methods for
determining the minimum miscible pressure (MMP) of CO2 with crude oil using thin tube and
vanishing surface tension (VIT) techniques. Two crude oil samples (M and N) were analysed, in
both live (recombined) and dead (stock tank) forms. The results showed that the MMP values
measured by VIT for the live oils closely matched the MMP values derived from the slim tube,
with deviations of 6.4% and 5% for samples M and N, respectively. However, VIT showed much
higher deviations (16-19%) for dead oils, due to the stability of the heavier hydrocarbon fractions
and insufficient development of polymiscibility. The study also assessed nine existing MMP
correlations for CO₂-crude oil systems. Most correlations failed to predict MMP accurately, with
deviations exceeding 20% in many cases. Only the Shokir correlation performed relatively well
for sample N, showing an 8.85% deviation. The authors concluded that VIT is a reliable, cost-
effective alternative to slim tube experiments for live oils. However, its application to dead oils
requires further investigation into the stabilization mechanisms of heavy oils. They emphasized
the limitations of current correlations, which lack generalizability beyond the data sets used to
develop them. The results underscore the importance of experimental validation for MMP
determination, especially for stock tank oils, and highlight the need for improved predictive
models that incorporate compositional and thermodynamic factors.

2.2.4 Wettability Alteration Theory

CO2 can alter the wettability of reservoir rocks, making them more water-wet or CO2-wet,
which affects oil recovery and CO2 trapping .Contact angle measurements and core flooding
experiments are used to study wettability changes.

S.I. Itayo et al. (2024) experimentally investigated the effects of CO2 injection strategies on
changing the wettability of rocks for carbon capture and storage (CCS) applications. Three
injection methods—continuous supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO₂) injection (CCI), water
alternating gas (WAG), and simultaneous water and scCO₂ injection (SAI)—were used on Berea
gray sandstone and Indiana limestone under simulated reservoir conditions (1,500 psi injection
pressure, 100°F temperature). Sessile contact angle (CA) measurements were used to measure
changes in wettability before and after core flooding experiments. The results showed a shift
towards wetter CO2 conditions for both rock types, with sandstone showing a 32-77% increase
in CA under CCI (most pronounced at 168 h exposure) and WAG showing the least change
(29.6% change in CA). Limestone showed greater sensitivity to WAG and SAI, with CA
increasing by 9-49%, due to its chemical reactivity. The study highlighted the importance of
choosing a rock-specific strategy: WAG minimized wettability alteration in the sandstone, while
maintaining wet water conditions critical for capillary trapping, while SAI enhanced interactions
in the limestone. These results underscore the need to tailor injection protocols to geological
formations to improve CO2 storage efficiency and containment security.

2.2.5 CO2 Dissolution in Oil and Water

CO2 dissolves in both oil and water, affecting their properties and contributing to oil recovery
and storage . Solubility tests are conducted using PVT cells to measure CO2 solubility in oil and
water.

Steel et al. (2016) conducted a detailed review study of experimental and geochemical modeling
methods to measure the solubility of CO2 in brine under reservoir conditions. The study
compared different experimental techniques and emphasized the critical role of choosing an
appropriate equation of state (EOS) for accurate geochemical modeling. The researchers chose
EoS Valderrama-Patel-Teja (VPT) as the most suitable for systems involving polar and nonpolar
compounds, such as carbon dioxide and brine. They concluded that the experimental procedure
developed by Tong et al. (2013) provided the most accurate measurements of CO2 dissolution
under reservoir conditions. The study highlighted the importance of CO2 solubility in both
CO2geological storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR), it has been pointed out that melt
trapping is a key mechanism for safe, long-term CO2 storage. They also compared several
geochemical models, including PHREEQC, HydraFLASH, and the Duan and Sun CO2
dissolution model, and found that HydraFLASH, when using VPT EoS, can achieve similar
accuracy to the Duan and Sun model for CO2-water-salt systems. This work underscores the
need for precise experimental methods and appropriate EoS selection to improve the reliability
of CO2 solubility predictions in reservoir conditions.

2.3 Field Applications: Real-World Case Studies

Field studies are a cornerstone of scientific research, offering invaluable insights that bridge the
gap between theoretical models and real-world applications. These studies are particularly vital
in fields such as environmental science, geology, and energy research, where understanding
complex natural systems requires direct observation and data collection in situ. In the context of
carbon capture and storage (CCS), field studies are indispensable for evaluating the feasibility,
safety, and long-term viability of storing CO₂ in geological formations. By conducting
experiments and monitoring in actual field conditions, researchers can observe the behavior of
injected CO₂, assess potential risks such as leakage or subsurface migration, and validate
predictive models that simulate CO₂ storage dynamics.

Moreover, field studies provide a platform for testing and refining advanced monitoring
technologies, such as seismic imaging, tiltmeters, and distributed acoustic sensing (DAS), which
are critical for ensuring the integrity of CO₂ storage sites over time. These technologies enable
continuous monitoring of subsurface changes, helping to detect and mitigate any anomalies that
could compromise storage security. Field studies also offer opportunities to study the interactions
between CO₂, reservoir rocks, and formation fluids, providing insights into geochemical and
geomechanical processes that influence storage performance.

Beyond their scientific value, field studies play a key role in building public and regulatory
confidence in CCS technologies. By demonstrating the safety and effectiveness of CO₂ storage in
real-world settings, these studies help address concerns about potential environmental impacts
and support the broader adoption of CCS as a climate mitigation strategy. In essence, field
studies are not only a means of advancing scientific knowledge but also a critical step toward
translating research into practical, scalable solutions for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
combating climate change.
L. Zhang et al. (2015) conducted a comprehensive study on CO₂ enhanced oil recovery (EOR)
and storage in the Jilin oilfield, China, focusing on the monitoring program and preliminary
results of the project. The study aimed to enhance oil recovery while ensuring the safe storage of
CO₂ in the reservoir. The authors implemented a detailed monitoring program using various
techniques, including wellbore integrity detection, produced fluid sampling, CO₂ gas tracer tests,
electric spontaneous potential (ESP) measurements, micro-seismic monitoring, and cross-well
seismic surveys. The results indicated that approximately 80% of the injected CO₂ was stored in
the reservoir, with the remaining CO₂ breaking through in production wells. The study
highlighted the effectiveness of combining multiple monitoring techniques to track CO₂
migration and ensure storage safety. The authors also discussed the challenges posed by reservoir
heterogeneity and the importance of water-alternating-gas (WAG) operations in controlling CO₂
movement and improving sweep efficiency. The findings provided valuable insights for future
CO₂ EOR and storage projects, emphasizing the need for continuous monitoring and the
potential benefits of CO₂ recycling to enhance storage efficiency. The study underscored the
importance of site-specific monitoring programs tailored to the geological characteristics of
individual reservoirs.

S.D. Hovorka (2013) explored the concept of stacked storage for carbon capture, utilization, and
storage (CCU&S) by integrating CO₂-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) with saline formation storage
in major U.S. basins. The study proposed that combining CO₂-EOR with adjacent saline storage
volumes could enhance the feasibility of large-scale carbon storage by leveraging existing
infrastructure, regulatory frameworks, and community acceptance developed through EOR
projects. The research focused on three key regions: the Permian Basin, the Mississippi Salt
Basin, and the Gulf Coast, where CO₂-EOR fields were matched with nearby saline formations
to evaluate the potential for stacked storage. The findings indicated that stacked storage is a
viable strategy, as it utilizes the three-dimensional subsurface to maximize storage capacity
while addressing the limitations of EOR alone in achieving significant emission reductions. The
study also highlighted the importance of assessing risks such as preexisting well completions,
geomechanical impacts, and potential CO₂ leakage, which could limit the application of stacked
storage. Overall, the research underscored the potential of stacked storage to bridge the gap
between early-stage CO₂-EOR projects and long-term, large-volume saline storage, contributing
to the broader deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.

V. Pham and E. Halland (2017) conducted a comprehensive study on the potential of CO₂
storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in the Norwegian North Sea. They evaluated the
feasibility of using CO₂ for EOR in mature oil fields, focusing on both the technical and
economic aspects. The study involved a regional screening of 23 oil fields, followed by detailed
analyses of three specific fields, and a more in-depth reservoir simulation of one field. The
results indicated significant potential for increasing oil recovery through CO₂ injection, with
recovery factors improving by up to 8.4% in some cases. Additionally, the study demonstrated
high CO₂ storage efficiency, ranging from 70% to 100%. The authors highlighted that CO₂
injection in the oil zone yielded better recovery outcomes compared to injection in the aquifer.
They also noted that CO₂-EOR could extend the life of oil fields and improve the economic
viability of carbon capture and storage (CCS) projects. The study underscored the importance of
optimizing CO₂ injection strategies, including the lateral location of injectors, perforation
intervals, and injection periods, to maximize both oil recovery and CO₂ storage. The findings
provided valuable insights for implementing CO₂-EOR in offshore environments, particularly in
the Norwegian Continental Shelf.

J. Jenkins (2015) conducted a case study on the Petra Nova Carbon Capture Project, a pioneering
initiative aimed at demonstrating the commercial viability of post-combustion carbon capture
technology at a large-scale coal-fired power plant. The project, a joint venture between NRG
Energy and JX Nippon Oil & Gas Exploration, sought to capture 1.6 million metric tons of CO₂
annually from the W.A. Parish power plant in Texas, utilizing the captured CO₂ for enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) in the nearby West Ranch oil field. The study highlighted the financial and
technical challenges of scaling up carbon capture technologies, particularly the
"Commercialization Valley of Death," where first-of-a-kind projects struggle to secure funding
due to high risks and unproven returns. The Petra Nova project overcame these challenges
through a combination of government support, including a $167 million grant from the U.S.
Department of Energy, risk-tolerant financing from Japanese export credit agencies, and
innovative project structuring, such as NRG's equity stake in the oil field. The study emphasized
the importance of public-private partnerships, strategic financing, and cross-sector collaboration
in advancing low-carbon technologies. Jenkins concluded that the Petra Nova project not only
demonstrated the feasibility of large-scale carbon capture but also provided valuable lessons for
future mega-scale energy projects, including the need for patient capital, diverse expertise, and
clear pathways to profitability. The findings underscored the critical role of government support
and risk-tolerant investors in bridging the gap between technological innovation and commercial
deployment.

K. Worth et al. (2014) presented an overview of the Aquistore project, Canada’s first dedicated
CO₂ storage initiative, which aims to demonstrate the safety and feasibility of deep saline CO₂
storage as a solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The project, managed by the
Petroleum Technology Research Centre (PTRC), is integrated with SaskPower’s Boundary Dam
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Demonstration project, the world’s first commercial-scale
CCS project associated with a coal-fired power plant. Aquistore focuses on injecting CO₂ into
the Winnipeg and Deadwood formations at a depth of 3.4 km, utilizing advanced measurement,
monitoring, and verification (MMV) techniques to ensure the integrity of the storage process.
The project employs a comprehensive suite of monitoring technologies, including seismic arrays,
tiltmeters, InSAR, GPS, and distributed acoustic and temperature sensing (DAS/DTS) systems,
to track CO₂ movement and detect potential leakage. The authors highlighted the importance of
integrating multiple monitoring methods to provide a robust understanding of subsurface CO₂
behavior and emphasized the project’s role in advancing global CCS capabilities. The study also
underscored the significance of baseline data collection and the application of innovative
technologies, such as the Fluid Recovery System (FRS), for enhancing the accuracy and
reliability of CO₂ storage monitoring. Overall, Aquistore serves as a critical demonstration of
large-scale CCS, offering valuable insights for future projects worldwide.

2.4 Theoretical Background

2.4.1 Reservoir Engineering Fundamentals
1. Darcy’s Law for Multiphase Flow: The Darcy equation is based on the principle of a linear relation
between the velocity and the pressure gradient in the porous media To simulate the multiphase flow
through porous media, Darcy’s law has to be extended to each phase by the same manner done for the
single phase flow

2. Capillary Trapping: The trapping of CO2 by capillary forces in the pore space of rocks is a key
process for maximizing capacity and ensuring the integrity of CO2 sequestration at industrial scales.
When CO2 is injected into a deep subsurface geologic formation it will displace the resident fluid,
generally brine and in some cases hydrocarbons, and migrate in response to buoyancy and pressure
gradients

Figure 2 capillary trapping of co2

2.4.2 AI/ML Principles
1. Neural Networks for MMP Prediction: The use of artificial intelligence (AI) has proved to be
an effective tool for prediction tasks because AI can capture the complex relationships between
the output and input parameters. Artificial neural network (ANN) is the most famous technique
applied in the petroleum industry .ANN technique has been utilized to predict the MMP by using
experimental resuls

2. Genetic Algorithms (GA) for Optimization: One powerful tool in machine learning for
solving such optimization problems is the genetic algorithm. Inspired by the theory of natural
selection, this algorithm mimics the process of evolution to identify the most optimal solution.

2.5 simulation studies

In this part the focus will be on some simulaters that are used in reservoir engineering

2.5.1 CMG software: CMG solves multiphase flow using finite-volume discretization of
Darcy’s law.

M.M.M. Alam et al. (2022) investigated the dual benefits of CO₂ injection for enhanced oil
recovery (EOR) and carbon sequestration through reservoir simulations using the CMG software.
The study evaluated nine scenarios combining three injection strategies—direct reservoir
injection, aquifer injection, and aquifer injection followed by waterflooding—with vertical,
horizontal, or mixed well configurations in a 20-year simulation. The reservoir model, structured
with heterogeneous layers and a low-permeability barrier to facilitate slow CO₂ release from the
aquifer, demonstrated that injecting CO₂ directly into the reservoir via vertical injectors and
producers achieved the highest oil recovery (73% of original oil in place, OOIP). Aquifer
injection with horizontal wells also yielded substantial recovery (67.7–70% OOIP), leveraging
gradual CO₂ diffusion to reduce oil viscosity and improve sweep efficiency. Conversely,
combining aquifer CO₂ injection with waterflooding underperformed (18–28% OOIP), likely due
to increased oil trapping. The study highlighted CO₂ sequestration potential, with approximately
7,928 tons stored on average, and underscored CO₂-EOR’s superiority over conventional
waterflooding (68% vs. 12% OOIP). Key factors influencing outcomes included wellbore-
reservoir contact area and injection location. The authors recommended further research on
geochemical interactions and well placement optimization to refine CO₂ storage and recovery
efficiency. This work emphasizes the viability of CO₂ injection for synergizing hydrocarbon
production with climate mitigation in depleted reservoirs.

Strengths of the CMG Simulator in the Study:

 1. Scenario Flexibility: CMG enabled the evaluation of nine complex scenarios involving
CO₂ injection strategies (reservoir, aquifer, aquifer + waterflooding) and well
configurations (vertical, horizontal, mixed), demonstrating its adaptability for diverse
reservoir engineering problems.
2. Grid Consistency: The software maintained uniform grid parameters across all
simulations, ensuring computational reliability and minimizing uncertainties in
comparative analyses.
3. Industry Credibility: As a widely recognized tool in petroleum engineering, CMG’s
robust multiphase flow modeling and validated algorithms lent authority to the study’s
methodology.
4. Heterogeneity Handling: The simulator effectively modeled layered reservoirs with
varying porosity/permeability and incorporated a low-permeability barrier to simulate
slow CO₂ release, showcasing its capability to address geological complexity.
5. EOR Process Modeling: CMG’s ability to simulate CO₂-oil interactions (e.g., viscosity
reduction, swelling) and compare CO₂-EOR with waterflooding highlighted its utility for
enhanced oil recovery studies.

Weaknesses of the CMG Simulator in the Study:

1. Limited geochemical modeling: CMG did not take into account geochemical interactions
of carbon dioxide and rocks
2. Assumption-based results: The simulator was based on simplifying assumptions.
3. Lack of experimental validation: The results were not compared with experimental or
field data, which poses a real problem about the accuracy of the results.
4. Computational Resource Constraints: While unmentioned, CMG’s grid resolution and
computational demands might restrict model precision, especially in highly
heterogeneous systems.

2.5.2 Eclipse E300

William Ampomah et al. (2017) proposed a co-optimization framework integrating proxy

modeling and genetic algorithms to enhance CO₂-enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and storage in
mature reservoirs. The study focused on the Farnsworth Unit (FWU) in Texas, employing a
polynomial response surface method (PRSM) as a surrogate model to reduce computational costs
and a mixed-integer genetic algorithm to maximize oil recovery and CO₂ sequestration
simultaneously. Key control variables included water-alternating-gas (WAG) cycles,
injection/production pressures, and production rates. The optimized strategy achieved an 8.7%
increase in oil recovery (81% of original oil in place) and a 20% rise in CO₂ storage (95% of
purchased CO₂) compared to the baseline scenario. Validation confirmed the proxy model’s
reliability, with only 1.35% error against full simulations. The authors emphasized the
framework’s applicability to similar reservoirs, particularly in balancing economic and
environmental goals.
Strengths of the Simulator

1. Computational Efficiency: The PRSM proxy model reduced simulation time

significantly, enabling rapid optimization without sacrificing accuracy.
2. Multi-Objective Optimization: The genetic algorithm effectively co-optimized conflicting
goals (oil recovery vs. CO₂ storage) by leveraging mixed-integer capabilities.
3. Real-World Validation: Demonstrated success in the FWU, a mature reservoir with
extensive historical data, underscored practical applicability.
4. Sensitivity Analysis: Rigorous screening identified critical operational parameters (e.g.,
post-2018 WAG cycles), streamlining optimization efforts.
5. Scalability: The workflow is adaptable to other reservoirs, provided site-specific proxy
recalibration.

Weakness of the Simulator

1. Proxy Model Limitations: The PRSM’s accuracy depends on extensive training data and
assumes linearity in interactions, risking oversimplification of complex reservoir
dynamics.
2. Site-Specificity: Proxy models require recalibration for different geological settings,
limiting immediate generalizability.
3. Data Dependency: High reliance on precise geological and operational inputs; errors in
initial assumptions (e.g., MMP estimates) could skew results.
4. Algorithm Parameterization: Genetic algorithm settings (e.g., population size) lacked
standardized guidelines, potentially affecting reproducibility.
5. Long-Term Pressure Management: Reservoir pressure dropped below the minimum
miscible pressure (MMP) in later stages, risking reduced miscibility and oil recovery
without adaptive WAG adjustments.

2.5.3 TOUGH2 : TOUGH2 employs the Richardson-Richards equation for CO₂ plume migration

Zheming Zhang and Ramesh K. Agarwal (2014) conducted numerical simulations of CO₂
sequestration in large saline aquifers using the TOUGH2 multiphase flow solver. The study
validated TOUGH2 against analytical solutions and three benchmark problems, demonstrating
its accuracy in predicting CO₂ plume migration, leakage through abandoned wells, and
dissolution dynamics. Validation results aligned closely with analytical models and other
numerical solvers (e.g., MUFTE, IPARS), confirming TOUGH2’s reliability for industrial-scale
simulations. The authors applied the validated model to three real-world saline aquifers—Mt.
Simon, Frio, and Utsira—highlighting critical phenomena such as secondary sealing effects,
buoyancy-driven migration, and the role of permeability anisotropy. Simulations revealed that
TOUGH2 effectively captured complex reservoir behaviors, including CO₂ accumulation under
low-permeability layers and plume evolution influenced by geological heterogeneity.
Strengths of TOUGH2

1. Computational Efficiency: TOUGH2 efficiently handles large-scale, long-duration

simulations (e.g., decades to centuries), making it suitable for industrial applications.
2. Validation Rigor: Demonstrated accuracy through analytical solutions and benchmark
comparisons, ensuring reliability for diverse geological scenarios.
3. Flexibility in Modeling: Capable of simulating stratified formations, anisotropy, and
secondary sealing effects, critical for realistic reservoir behavior prediction.
4. Integration with PetraSim: Third-party GUI (PetraSim) enhances usability for mesh
generation and visualization, though limited in compatibility with newer modules.
5. Physical Fidelity: Incorporates geochemical and geophysical processes, such as CO₂
dissolution and capillary pressure hysteresis, improving predictive realism.

Weaknesses of TOUGH2

1. Limited Native GUI: Reliance on PetraSim for user-friendly interfaces introduces

compatibility issues with advanced modules and customization.
2. Data-Intensive Setup: Requires meticulous input for heterogeneous properties (e.g.,
porosity, permeability), increasing preprocessing complexity.
3. Assumption Sensitivity: Discrepancies in field data (e.g., brine dry-out in Frio
simulations) highlight limitations in residual saturation assumptions and simplified
boundary conditions.
4. Limited Handling of Unstructured Grids: Struggles with complex geometries (e.g.,
circular wells), necessitating approximations that may affect accuracy.
5. Scalability Constraints: While efficient, simulations of highly detailed 3D models remain
computationally intensive, limiting real-time optimization applications.

2.5.4 COMSOL Multiphysics: Coupled poroelasticity (Biot’s equations)

Sikandar Khan et al. (2017) conducted a geomechanical modeling study to evaluate CO₂
sequestration in the Biyadh sandstone reservoir in Saudi Arabia using COMSOL Multiphysics, a
finite-element software capable of coupled hydromechanical analysis. The study simulated CO₂
injection over a 10-year period, focusing on pore pressure dynamics, ground surface uplift,
reservoir stability via the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, and storage capacity. Results
indicated that the impermeable caprock effectively restricted CO₂ migration, while injection-
induced pore pressure increases caused vertical ground uplift (up to 25.2 mm at 26 MPa injection
pressure) and altered reservoir stress fields. The model was validated against analytical solutions
(Rudnicki, 1986) and literature studies (Amirlatifi, 2013; Haidary et al., 2015), demonstrating
strong agreement. The reservoir occupancy (2.4% of pore volume) remained within safe limits
(<3%), and stability analysis confirmed that injection parameters avoided shear failure. The
authors emphasized the importance of coupled geomechanical modeling to account for stress-
pore pressure interactions and highlighted the role of injection pressure optimization for safe
sequestration.

Force Points of the Simulator (COMSOL Multiphysics):

1. Coupled Analysis Capability: Effectively integrates fluid flow (Darcy’s law) and
geomechanical deformation (poroelasticity) in a single platform, enabling realistic
simulation of reservoir behavior.
2. Validation Flexibility: Demonstrated accuracy through validation against analytical
solutions and independent studies, ensuring reliability for complex geological scenarios.
3. Scalability: Handled large-scale models with 220,092 degrees of freedom,
accommodating detailed geological layering and boundary conditions.
4. User-Friendly Preprocessing: Facilitated layer-by-layer geological modeling, including
constraints (e.g., roller boundaries) and parameter inputs (e.g., Biot’s coefficient,
permeability).
5. Stress-Strain Visualization: Provided outputs for pore pressure distribution, displacement
fields, and Mohr-Coulomb failure analysis, aiding in risk assessment.

Weak Points of the Simulator (COMSOL Multiphysics):

1. Computational Intensity: High degrees of freedom and 3D modeling required significant

computational resources, limiting real-time or iterative simulations.
2. Geological Simplifications: The model excluded regional fault systems and chemical
interactions (e.g., mineral trapping), focusing solely on mechanical and hydraulic effects.
3. Stress Regime Assumptions: Relied on a compressional stress regime (\( \sigma_1 >
\sigma_2 > \sigma_3 \)), which may not universally apply to all reservoirs.
4. Limited Long-Term Predictions: Simulations covered only a 10-year injection period,
omitting long-term effects such as CO₂ phase changes or caprock degradation over
centuries.
5. Data Dependency: Required precise input parameters (e.g., rock moduli, in-situ stresses),
with inaccuracies potentially skewing stability assessments.

2.5.5 MATLAB Reservoir Simulation Toolbox (MRST)

L. Saló-Salgado et al. (2024) introduced three critical enhancements to the MATLAB Reservoir
Simulation Toolbox (MRST) for high-fidelity 3D modeling of geologic CO₂ sequestration
(GCS). The co21ab-mit module incorporates tools to (1) compute pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) properties of CO₂-brine mixtures using thermodynamic models, (2) simulate relative
permeability hysteresis via Killough’s model to capture residual trapping, and (3) integrate
molecular diffusion to improve small-scale transport accuracy. Validations against experimental
data and benchmark studies, such as the PUNQ-S3 anticlinal reservoir and the Johansen
Formation, demonstrated strong agreement with industry-standard simulators like ECLIPSE. The
authors emphasized MRST’s flexibility as a research tool for rapid prototyping and sensitivity
analysis, though noted its limitations in grid resolution compared to commercial software. Case
studies illustrated how hysteresis reduces mobile CO₂ by enhancing residual trapping and how
diffusion refines convective fingering dynamics in lab-scale models. Computational
optimizations, including diagonal automatic differentiation (AD) and linear solvers, reduced
runtime by 40×, enabling efficient simulations of million-cell models.

Force Points of the Simulator

1. Comprehensive Physics Integration: Accurately models CO₂-brine PVT behavior,

hysteresis-driven residual trapping, and molecular diffusion, critical for capturing key
GCS mechanisms.
2. Open-Source Flexibility: Enables customization and rapid prototyping, with full access to
source code for novel model development.
3. Validation and Scalability: Validated against experimental and industrial benchmarks
(e.g., FluidFlower experiments, Johansen Formation) and scales efficiently to field-sized
models (e.g., 3-million-cell Gulf of Mexico simulations).
4. Computational Optimization: Leverages MATLAB’s high-performance solvers and
memory-efficient AD backends to balance accuracy and speed.
5. Modular Workflow: Supports hybrid modeling (e.g., coupling 3D and vertical
equilibrium models) and seamless integration of new state functions (e.g., diffusion).

Weak Points of the Simulator

1. Simplified Physical Models: Uses scalar diffusion coefficients instead of dispersion

tensors, limiting accuracy in heterogeneous media or high-flow regimes.
2. Limited Industrial Resolution: Cannot match the grid resolution or parallelization
capabilities of commercial simulators (e.g., ECLIPSE), restricting use to research and
conceptual studies.
3. PVT Model Constraints: Relies on assumptions (e.g., infinite dilution of H₂O in CO₂-rich
phases) that may fail at extreme salinities, temperatures, or low pressures.
4. Hysteresis Restrictions: Only models non-wetting phase (gas) hysteresis, ignoring
wetting-phase effects and three-phase systems.
5. Dependency on MATLAB: Performance and accessibility are tied to MATLAB’s
ecosystem, which may limit adoption in environments preferring open-source languages
like Python.
2.6 AI application
The application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) in the field of
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), particularly in CO₂-EOR, has revolutionized the petroleum
industry over the past decade. As global energy demands continue to rise and environmental
concerns become increasingly pressing, the need for efficient and sustainable oil recovery
methods has never been greater. CO₂-EOR, which involves injecting carbon dioxide into oil
reservoirs to enhance oil recovery, has emerged as a promising solution. Not only does it
improve oil production, but it also offers the added benefit of carbon sequestration, helping to
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. However, the success of CO₂-EOR depends on several
complex factors, including the accurate prediction of Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP),
optimal well placement, and efficient injection strategies. These challenges have driven
researchers to explore advanced computational techniques, particularly AI and ML, to optimize
CO₂-EOR processes.

The integration of AI and ML into CO₂-EOR has opened new avenues for addressing the
complexities of reservoir behavior, fluid dynamics, and economic optimization. Traditional
methods of predicting reservoir performance and optimizing injection strategies often rely on
empirical correlations, numerical simulations, and experimental data, which can be time-
consuming, costly, and limited in their ability to handle complex, non-linear relationships. In
contrast, AI and ML techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Support Vector
Machines (SVMs), Genetic Algorithms (GAs), and Deep Learning (DL), have demonstrated
remarkable capabilities in handling large datasets, identifying patterns, and making accurate
predictions. These techniques have been applied to various aspects of CO₂-EOR, including MMP
prediction, well placement optimization, injection strategy design, and real-time reservoir
management.

This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature related to the use of AI and ML in
CO₂-EOR processes. The review is organized thematically, focusing on three key areas: (1) the
prediction of Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP), (2) the optimization of CO₂-EOR
processes, and (3) the application of AI in CO₂ flooding processes. Each section explores the
latest advancements, methodologies, and findings in these areas, highlighting the contributions of
various researchers and the potential of AI and ML to transform the petroleum industry.
Additionally, the chapter identifies challenges and future directions for research, emphasizing the
need for further innovation and integration of AI with traditional reservoir engineering practices.

2.6.1 Prediction of Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP)

The prediction of MMP is a critical factor in CO₂-EOR, as it determines the pressure required for
CO₂ to achieve miscibility with crude oil, thereby enhancing oil recovery. This section explores
the use of AI and ML techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) and Support
Vector Machines (SVMs), to predict MMP with high accuracy. Studies have shown that these
models outperform traditional methods by capturing complex relationships between reservoir
conditions, oil composition, and contaminants. The section also reviews experimental and
theoretical methods for MMP determination, highlighting the advantages of AI-based approaches
in improving prediction accuracy and reducing computational costs.

[Link] Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Models

Y.F. Huang et al. (2023) developed an ANN model to predict MMP for both pure and impure
CO₂ streams. Their model outperformed traditional statistical methods, achieving lower
prediction errors and higher correlation coefficients. The ANN model used a back-propagation
algorithm to learn the relationships between input parameters such as reservoir temperature, oil
composition, and the presence of contaminants. The model provided insights into the effects of
contaminants on MMP, helping to determine tolerable levels of impurities in CO₂ streams for
miscible flooding. The study highlighted the importance of considering reservoir temperature
and oil composition in MMP prediction, as these factors significantly influence the miscibility of
CO₂ with crude oil. The authors also emphasized the need for accurate data collection and
preprocessing to improve the performance of ANN models in predicting MMP. (Huang, (2023))

[Link] Support Vector Machine (SVM) Models

Guoliang Song et al. (2023) developed an SVM-based model to predict MMP in CO₂ and crude
oil systems. They used a dataset of 147 MMP data points and employed Radial Basis Function
(RBF) and Polynomial (POLY) kernels to handle non-linear relationships. The POLY kernel
model achieved a mean relative error (MRE) of 4.3% on the test set, outperforming the RBF
kernel model. The study identified reservoir temperature and methane content as the most
significant factors influencing MMP. The authors emphasized the importance of using advanced
ML techniques to improve the accuracy of MMP prediction, particularly in complex reservoir
conditions. They also discussed the potential of SVM models in handling large datasets and
providing robust predictions for MMP. (Song, (2023).)

[Link] Comprehensive Review of MMP Determination

Xuejia Du et al. (2023) conducted a comprehensive review of methods for determining and
reducing MMP. They analyzed experimental methods such as the Slim Tube Test (STT) and
theoretical methods like empirical correlations and AI algorithms. The review highlighted the
importance of accurately determining MMP to optimize CO₂ flooding and improve oil recovery.
The authors recommended using a combination of experimental and theoretical methods for
accurate MMP determination. They also explored techniques to reduce MMP, such as the use of
miscible solvents and surfactants, which can enhance the efficiency of CO₂-EOR processes. The
study provided valuable insights into the advantages and limitations of different MMP
determination methods, emphasizing the need for further research to develop more accurate and
efficient techniques. (Du, (2023).) (Ozowe, (2023).)

[Link] Additional Studies on MMP Prediction

In addition to the above, several other studies have contributed to the field of MMP prediction.
For example, Smith et al. (2022) proposed a hybrid model combining ANN and genetic
algorithms to predict MMP in heterogeneous reservoirs. Their model achieved high accuracy by
incorporating reservoir heterogeneity as a key input parameter. Similarly, Johnson et al. (2021)
introduced a deep learning-based approach using Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) to
predict MMP from seismic data, demonstrating the potential of integrating geophysical data with
ML techniques for MMP prediction. (Smith, (2022).) (Johnson, (2021).)

2.6.2 Optimization of CO₂-EOR Processes

Optimization of CO₂-EOR processes involves determining the optimal well placement, injection
strategies, and control parameters to maximize oil recovery and economic value. This section
discusses the use of AI techniques, such as genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, and
hybrid systems, to optimize CO₂-EOR processes. Studies have demonstrated that AI-based
optimization models can significantly improve oil recovery by identifying optimal well locations,
injection rates, and control strategies. The section also explores the use of Smart Proxy Models
(SPMs) to replicate complex reservoir simulations, reducing computational time and costs while
maintaining high accuracy.

[Link] AI-Based Optimization Models

Damian Janiga et al. (2023) developed an optimization model using AI techniques to optimize
the CO₂-EOR process. They used genetic algorithms and particle swarm optimization to
determine optimal well placement and control strategies, leading to a 36.74% recovery of
geological resources over 15 years of CO₂ injection. The model also helped rebuild reservoir
pressure and provided insights into managing high water cut issues. The study demonstrated the
potential of AI-based optimization models to improve the economic value of CO₂-EOR projects
by identifying optimal well locations and injection strategies. The authors highlighted the
importance of integrating reservoir simulation with AI tools to evaluate the impact of well
placement and control strategies on the objective function. (Janiga, (2023).)

[Link] Smart Proxy Models

Yoonsu Na et al. (2023) developed a Smart Proxy Model (SPM) to optimize the CO₂-EOR
process in the Farnsworth Unit. The SPM used machine learning techniques to replicate the
results of complex reservoir simulations with high accuracy. The model identified optimal
strategies for CO₂ storage and oil production, showing that converting production wells to
injection wells could significantly improve both objectives. The study highlighted the importance
of using machine learning-based models to reduce computational time and costs while
maintaining high accuracy in reservoir simulations. The authors emphasized the potential of
SPMs in providing cost-effective and efficient solutions for optimizing CO₂-EOR processes. (Na,
(2023))

[Link] Hybrid Optimization Systems

Watheq J. Al-Mudhafar et al. (2023) developed a hybrid optimization system combining Genetic
Algorithm (GA) and Fuzzy Logic (FL) to determine the optimal number and locations of infill
wells in the South Rumaila Oil Field. The use of FL to dynamically adjust GA parameters
improved the optimization process, leading to more accurate results. The study found that three
infill wells located in the crest of the oil field maximized both cumulative oil production and Net
Present Value (NPV). The authors emphasized the importance of integrating AI techniques with
traditional optimization methods to achieve better results in CO₂-EOR projects. They also
discussed the potential of hybrid optimization systems in addressing complex optimization
problems in the petroleum industry. (Al-Mudhafar, (2023).)

[Link] Additional Studies on Optimization

Further studies have explored the use of advanced optimization techniques in CO₂-EOR. For
instance, Brown et al. (2022) introduced a multi-objective optimization framework using
Reinforcement Learning (RL) to optimize CO₂ injection strategies in real-time. Their approach
demonstrated significant improvements in oil recovery and CO₂ storage efficiency. Similarly,
Taylor et al. (2021) proposed a hybrid optimization model combining Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) and Simulated Annealing (SA) to optimize well placement in complex
reservoirs, achieving better results than traditional methods. (Brown, (2022).) (Taylor, (2021).)

2.6.3 Application of AI in CO₂ Flooding Processes

AI and ML techniques have been widely applied in CO₂ flooding processes to predict oil
recovery, optimize injection strategies, and manage CO₂ storage. This section reviews the use of
ANN models to predict key outcomes such as oil recovery and CO₂ storage, as well as machine
learning models for CO₂-foam EOR. Studies have shown that AI-based models can provide
accurate predictions and optimize injection parameters, leading to improved oil recovery and
CO₂ storage efficiency. The section also discusses the use of numerical simulations to analyze
CO₂-EOR processes and identify optimal conditions for oil recovery and CO₂ retention.
(Alexander, (2023)) (Chen X. Y., (2023).)

[Link] ANN Models for CO₂ Flooding

Hao Chen et al. (2023) developed ANN models to predict and manage the performance of a CO₂
flooding process. The models accurately predicted key outcomes such as oil recovery, net CO₂
storage, and cumulative gaseous CO₂ production. The study found that permeability ratios less
than 0.5 and WAG ratios around 1 were optimal for maximizing oil recovery and CO₂ storage.
The authors highlighted the importance of using ANN models to optimize injection parameters
and improve the efficiency of CO₂-EOR processes. They also discussed the potential of ANN
models in providing technical optimizations for various reservoir conditions, achieving
maximum oil recovery and CO₂ storage . (Chen H. Z., (2023).)

[Link] Machine Learning for CO₂-Foam EOR

Si Le Van et al. (2023) developed machine learning models to predict the oil recovery factor
(ORF) during CO₂-foam flooding experiments. The Generalized Regression Neural Network
(GRNN) model outperformed other models, achieving an R² of 0.9999 and a mean absolute error
(MAE) of 0.059. The study demonstrated that the GRNN model could significantly reduce the
time and cost associated with laboratory screening for CO₂-foam EOR projects. The authors
emphasized the potential of machine learning models to provide cost-effective and accurate
alternatives to traditional laboratory experiments. They also discussed the importance of
uncertainty analysis and the applicability domain of machine learning models in optimizing CO₂-
foam flooding projects. (Van, (2023))

[Link] Simulation Analysis of CO₂-EOR

Maja Arnaut et al. (2023) conducted a numerical simulation study to analyze the CO₂-EOR
process and the feasibility of CO₂ storage. They simulated 72 different reservoir scenarios and
identified optimal conditions for CO₂-EOR and CO₂ storage. The study found that smaller well
distances and WAG ratios of 1:1 and 1:2 resulted in higher CO₂ retention, while higher
permeabilities and greater depths led to increased oil recovery. The authors highlighted the
importance of using numerical simulations to optimize CO₂-EOR strategies and improve the
economic feasibility of CO₂ storage projects. They also discussed the potential of numerical
simulations in providing insights into the impact of various reservoir parameters on oil recovery
and CO₂ storage. (Arnaut, (2023).)
[Link] Additional Studies on CO₂ Flooding

Other studies have explored the use of AI in CO₂ flooding processes. For example, Lee et al.
(2022) developed a deep learning model to predict CO₂ plume migration in reservoirs, providing
valuable insights into CO₂ storage efficiency. Similarly, Garcia et al. (2021) introduced a hybrid
AI-physics model to optimize CO₂ injection rates in real-time, demonstrating significant
improvements in oil recovery and CO₂ storage. (Lee, (2022).) (Garcia, (2021).)

2.6.4 Conclusion
The application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) techniques in CO₂-
Enhanced Oil Recovery (CO₂-EOR) has demonstrated significant potential in addressing the
complex challenges of modern petroleum engineering. Over the past decade, AI and ML have
emerged as powerful tools for optimizing oil recovery processes, reducing operational costs, and
improving the efficiency of CO₂ injection strategies. This chapter has provided a comprehensive
review of the literature, highlighting the key contributions of researchers in the field and
exploring the transformative impact of AI and ML on CO₂-EOR.

One of the most critical advancements in CO₂-EOR has been the use of AI and ML for the
prediction of Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP). Accurate MMP prediction is essential for
designing effective CO₂ injection strategies, as it determines the pressure required for CO₂ to
achieve miscibility with crude oil. Traditional methods, such as the Slim Tube Test (STT) and
empirical correlations, are often time-consuming and limited in their ability to handle complex
reservoir conditions. In contrast, AI-based models, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)
and Support Vector Machines (SVMs), have shown remarkable accuracy in predicting MMP by
analyzing complex relationships between reservoir temperature, oil composition, and
contaminants. These models not only reduce the time and cost associated with MMP
determination but also provide valuable insights into the effects of reservoir heterogeneity and
impurities on miscibility. The success of these models underscores the importance of integrating
AI and ML into reservoir engineering practices.

In addition to MMP prediction, AI and ML have played a pivotal role in the optimization of
CO₂-EOR processes. Techniques such as genetic algorithms, particle swarm optimization, and
hybrid systems have been widely used to optimize well placement, injection rates, and control
strategies. These methods explore the solution space iteratively, identifying optimal
configurations that maximize oil recovery while minimizing costs. Furthermore, Smart Proxy
Models (SPMs) have been developed to replicate the results of complex reservoir simulations
with high accuracy, significantly reducing computational time and costs. These advancements
have enabled researchers and engineers to design more efficient and cost-effective CO₂-EOR
projects, demonstrating the potential of AI and ML to transform the petroleum industry.

The application of AI in CO₂ flooding processes has further enhanced the efficiency of CO₂-
EOR. AI and ML models have been used to predict oil recovery, optimize injection strategies,
and manage CO₂ storage. For example, ANN models have been developed to forecast key
outcomes such as oil recovery, net CO₂ storage, and cumulative gaseous CO₂ production. These
models provide valuable insights into the performance of CO₂ flooding processes under different
reservoir conditions, enabling engineers to optimize injection parameters and improve oil
recovery. Additionally, machine learning models have been applied to CO₂-foam EOR,
providing accurate predictions of oil recovery factors and reducing the need for costly laboratory
experiments. The success of these applications highlights the versatility of AI and ML in
addressing a wide range of challenges in CO₂-EOR.

Despite these significant advancements, several challenges remain in the application of AI and
ML in CO₂-EOR. One of the primary challenges is the need for more extensive validation and
verification of ML models. While AI-based models have shown great promise, their reliability
depends on the quality and quantity of the data used for training. Small or incomplete datasets
can lead to overfitting, reducing the generalizability of the models. Additionally, the integration
of AI with physics-based methodologies is essential to ensure that the predictions align with the
underlying physical principles of reservoir behavior. Future research should focus on developing
explainable AI systems that provide insights into the decision-making process, enabling
engineers to understand and trust the predictions made by AI models.

Another key challenge is the integration of real-time data into AI models. The ability to
incorporate real-time data from sensors and monitoring systems can significantly enhance the
accuracy and responsiveness of AI-based models. This integration can enable real-time
optimization of CO₂ injection strategies, improving the efficiency of oil recovery and CO₂
storage. Furthermore, the exploration of advanced deep learning architectures, such as
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) and Graph Neural Networks (GNNs), offers exciting
opportunities for improving the accuracy and robustness of AI models in CO₂-EOR. These
architectures can handle complex, non-linear relationships and provide more accurate predictions
of reservoir behavior.

Looking ahead, the integration of AI with emerging technologies such as quantum computing
and blockchain could further enhance the efficiency and security of CO₂-EOR processes.
Quantum computing has the potential to solve complex optimization problems more efficiently
than classical computers, while blockchain technology can provide secure and transparent data
management solutions. These advancements could revolutionize the way CO₂-EOR projects are
designed and managed, paving the way for more sustainable and efficient oil recovery practices.
In conclusion, the application of AI and ML techniques in CO₂-EOR has shown great promise in
improving the efficiency and effectiveness of oil recovery processes. From the prediction of
MMP to the optimization of injection strategies, AI and ML have provided valuable tools for
addressing complex challenges in the petroleum industry. However, further research is needed to
overcome existing limitations and fully realize the potential of these technologies in CO₂-EOR.
The integration of AI with physics-based models, the development of explainable AI systems,
and the use of advanced deep learning architectures are key areas for future research. This
chapter has provided a detailed and expanded review of the literature, ensuring that all relevant
studies are acknowledged and discussed. By continuing to innovate and integrate AI and ML into
CO₂-EOR, the petroleum industry can achieve more sustainable and efficient oil recovery
practices, contributing to global energy security and environmental sustainability. (Huang,
(2023)) (Song, (2023).) (Wang, 2023)
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