« Chapter No.

2 Networks and the effects of using them In this chapter

youwill learn about: networks: routers common network devices - NICs,
hubs, switches, bridges and Wi-Fi and Bluetooth cloud computing
intranets, extranets and the internet LANS, WLANs and WANS network
issues and communication: security lincluding passwords, types of
authentication) - anti-malware electronic conferencing. Most computer
systems are now connected in some way to form a network. This ranges
from a basic home network of only a few devices to very large networks,
often set up to share resources, such as printers or software. The largest
network is the internet itself. 4.1 Networks 4.1.1 Common network devices
and terms We will begin this section by defining four important terms you
will often come across in this chapter: network interface card (NIC) »
media access control (MAC) address » internet protocol (IP) address » data
packet. Network interface card (NIC) A network interface card (NIC) is
needed to allow a device to connect to a network. An NIC turns binary
data into an electrical signal that allows access to a network. The NIC is
usually integrated into the motherboard on most modern com puters.
Each NIC is given a unique hardwired (or hard-coded) media access
control (MAC) address at the manufacturing stage. When installed in a
device, this uniquely identifies that device. Wireless network interface
cards (WNICs) are the same as NICs in that they are used to connect
devices to the internet or other networks. However, they use wireless
connectivity, utilising an antenna to communicate with networks via
microwaves. They would normally plug into the USB port or be part of an
internal integrated circuit. 76 Media access control (MAC) address The
media access control (MAC) address is a number which uniquely identifies
a device when it is connected to a network. The MAC address is made up
of 48 bits which are shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits with the
general format: NN- NN -NN-DD DD - DD manufacturer's code device serial
number For example, 00-1C- B3-4F-25- FF , where the first six hex digits
identify a device made by Apple and the second set of six hex digits are
the unique serial number of the device itself. If the NIC card is replaced,
the MAC address will also change. The MAC address is sometimes referred
to as the physical address because it uniquely identifies a device. MAC
addresses are useful when trying to identify network faults because they
never change, which makes it a more reliable method of identifying data
senders and data receivers on a network. Internet protocol (IP) addresses
Whenever a computer connects to the internet it is given an internet
protocol (IP) address. This is usually assigned to the computer by the
internet service provider (ISP). Because the operation of the internet is
based on a set of protocols (rules), it is necessary to supply an IP address.
Internet protocols define the rules that must be agreed by senders and
receivers of data communicating through the internet. An IP address
essentially identifies the location of a device on a network. This means
that if you are using your laptop at home, it will have been given an IP
address when it connected to the internet. If you now take your laptop to
a coffee shop, and log into the internet again, it will be assigned a new IP
address. Unlike the MAC address which remains constant, the IP address
changes each time you log in at different locations. There are two versions
of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the address is written as
four groups of eight bits (shown in denary format); for example:
[Link] Because there are now so many devices connected to the
internet, and this number is growing, in the future 32 bits will no longer be
enough to give each of them a unique address. Therefore, a newer version
called IPv6 is now being used. This uses a 128-bit address, which take the
form of eight groups of hex digits; for example:
A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA Note the use of colons (:) and
hexadecimal numbering. IPv6 has been designed to allow the internet to
grow in terms of the number of hosts and potential increase in the amount
of data traffic. 4.1 Networks 77 GKM'S AMULAKH AMICHAND TOUNJ.. 4
NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM Data packets Data is
moved around networks in the form of data packets. Whenever a user
sends some data, it is split up into a number of packets and each packet is
transmitted separately. Packets of data will usually have a header which
contains: »the sender's IP address » the receiver's IP address the
sequence/identity number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the
packets can be reassembled into the correct order once they reach the
destination) the packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can
check if all of the packets have arrived intact) >» how many data packets
make up the whole message. When a router (see later) receives a packet
of data, it checks the destination IP address against the stored routing
table, which allows the router to determine the packet's next step in the
path. A data packet will pass through a number of routers before it
reaches its final destination. All the information in the data packet headers
allows the data packets to be reassembled in their correct order,
according to the sequence/identity number, by the receiving station.
Exercise 4а Try finding and running a program called 'tracert' which shows
the 'hops' data packets take from sender to receiver. The screen printout
will show the routers used in the path and the 'hop' numbers. (You can
find 'tracert' utilities using a search engine.) Hubs Hubs are hardware
devices that can have a number of other devices connected to them. They
are used primarily to connect devices together to form a local area
network (LAN), often in the same building. A hub will take a data packet
received at one of its ports and broadcast it to every device connected to
it. data packet sent to one of the hub ports computer computer data sent
out HUB connected computer to all devices to the hub in the network
computer Figure 4.1 Hub Figure 4.2 Hub network connections Because
data packets are delivered to every device on the network: > hubs are not
very secure because every device will receive every data packet >> there
will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results in reduced
bandwidth. 78 ‫ זש‬Switches Switches are 'intelligent' versions of hubs. As
with hubs, they connect a number of devices together to form a LAN.
However, unlike a hub, a switch stores the MACaddresses of all devices on
the network. Each port on the switch connected to a device will have a
matchingMAC address (called a look-up table) as shown in Table 4.1,
▼Table 4.1 Switch MAC address table Port number MAC addresS a4-00-22-
a4-fe-d1 1 00-1c-b3-4f-25-ff 2 3 33-11-ad-6f-f1-00 a4-00-22-b2-24-11 00-
1c-b3-44-ff-02 Od-3e-4f-1a-22-00 Figure 4.3 Switch Using the look-up
table, a switch matches the MAC address of an incoming data packet
arriving at one of its ports, and directs it to the correct device. None of the
other devices will see this data packet. Thus, if a data packet arrives at
port 2, and the MAC address in the data packet is a4-00-22-b2-24-11, then
the switch will connect the data packet to port 4 only. computer data
packet sent to one of the switch ports data packet computer SWITCH
computer sent out to the correct device only on the network computer
Figure 4.4 Switch network connections Consequently, switches are more
secure than hubs (because only the intended device is sent the data) and
do not waste bandwidth (because network traffic is reduced). In
conclusion, hubs and switches are used to exchange data within their own
local area networks. They are unable to exchange data with outside
networks (such as the internet). To exchange data outside their own LAN,
a device needs to be able to read an IP address. Therefore, we need
another device to allow communication with external networks. In
summary: > both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN
both hubs and switches use data packets hubs send data packets to every
device on the network; whereas switches send data packets to a specific
device only 4.1 Networks 79 GKM'S AMULAKH A 4 NETWORKS ÅND THE
EFFECTS OF USING THEМ > security is lower with hubs than with switches
> a switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device
switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination device. Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the
same protocol (communication rules). They are often used to connect
together different parts of a LAN so that they can function as a single LAN.
server computer server computer computer HUB/SWITCH HUB/SWITCH
computer Figure 4.5 Bridge computer BRIDGE computer Figure 4.6 Use of
a bridge to connect two LANs together Unlike routers, bridges cannot
communicate with other external networks, such as the internet. 4.1.2
Routers Routers are used to route data packets from one network to
another network, based on IP addresses. It can do this because each
router has its own IP address. Routers are used to join a LAN to the
internet. server computer computer HUB/SWITCH ROUTER computer LAN
internet Figure 4.7 Router Figure 4.8 Router used to connect a LAN to the
internet When a data packet is received at one of its ports, the router
inspects the IP address and determines whether the data packet is meant
for its own network or for another, external network. If the data packet is
meant for its own network, thern the data packet is routed to the local
switch or hub. Otherwise, the data packet is transmitted to a different
router (and therefore to an external network). Routers know where to send
data packets by consulting a routing table (stored on the router's RAM).
The routing table will contain information about the 80 router's immediate
network (such as computer addresses) and information about other
routers in its immediate vicinity. When a data packet reaches a router, it
examines the IP address. Because the routing table contains computer
addresses of all the computers/devices on its network, it will be able to
work out that the data packet is intended for a computer on its network.
Routers however, do not store the MAC addresses of devices (only IP
addresses of all computersand devices are stored). The router does not
need the MAC address because the data packet will be sent by the router
to the switch on the recipientlocal network. The switch can then use its
look-up table to send the data packet to the correct device. C1 C10 S1 R1
RO R4 S4 C11 R2 R3 Network 4 Network 1 SZ S3 Key: S1-S4 are switches
RO- R4 are routers C1-C12 are computers A Figure 4.9 Routing of data
from C1 to C10 Suppose, in Figure 4.9, computer C1 wishes to send data
to computer C10: > Data packets are sent from C1 to R1. >R1 checks the
IP addresses and notes the data packets are not intended for any devices
on Network 1. » The data packets are then forwarded onto the internet
(RO). » The IP address (in the header of the data packet) matches that of
R4; this ensures that each data packet is eventually forwarded to R4. > R4
recognises that the IP address of each data packet refers to Network 4,
and forwards them to S4 which then directs each data packet to C10.
Many modern broadband ‘routers' actually combine the functions of a
router and a switch - this means that they store MAC addresses and IP
addresses to enable data packets to be sent to the correct network and
then to the correct device on the network. 4.1 Networks 81 GKM'S
AMULAKH AMICHAND INTERNATIONAL SCCHOOL 4 NETWORKS AND THE
EFFECTS OF USING THЕМ Table 4.2 summarises the differences between
bridges and routers. Table 4.2 Comparison of routers and bridges Router
The main objective of a router is to connect various types of network
together Routers scan a device's IP address Data is sent out using data
packets Connected networks will use different protocols A routing table is
used to direct data packets to the correct device A router has more than
two ports 4.1.3 Wi-Fi and Bluetooth Bridge The main objective of a bridge
is to connect LANs together Bridges scan a device's MAC address Data is
sent out using data packets Connects networks together that use the
same protocols Bridges do not make use of routing tables A bridge has
only two ports Both Wi-Fiand Bluetooth offer wireless communication
between devices. They both use electromagnetic radiation as the carrier
of data transmission. Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band
of 79 different frequencies (known as channels). These are allcentred on a
frequency of 2.45 GHz. Devices using Bluetooth automatically detect and
connect to each other, but they do not interfere with other devices
because each communicating pair uses a different channel (from the 79
options). When a device wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79
channels at random to pair with another device. If the channel is already
being used, it randomly picks another channel. Once paired, to minimise
the risks of interference with other devices, the devices constantly change
the channels they are using (several times a second). This is known as
spread-spectrum frequency hopping. Bluetooth uses key encryption to
create a secure wireless personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is
useful: > > when transferring data between two or more devices which
are very close together (less than 30 metres distance) when the speed of
data transmission is not critical >> for low-bandwidth applications (for
example, when sending music files from a mobile phone to a headset). Wi-
Fi sends and receives radio waves in several different frequency bands -
2.4 GHz and 5 GHz are the most common at the moment. Like Bluetooth,
each band is also further split into channels. The 5GHz band has a faster
data transfer rate but a shorter signal range. Wi-Fi is best suited to
operating full-scale networks because it offers much faster data transfer
rates, better range and better security than Bluetooth. A Wi-Fienabled
device (such as a computer or smartphone) can access, for example, the
internet wirelessly atany access point (AP) or 'hot spot' up to 100 metres
away. Table 4.3 summarises some of the differences between Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth. Table4.3 Comparison of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth connectivity
Feature Transmission frequency used Data transfer rate (maximum)
Maximum effective rangeImetres Bluetooth 2.4 GHz 25 Mbits/second (-3.1
Mbytes/second) Wi-Fi 2.4, 3.6, 5.0 GHz 250 Mbits/second (-31
Mbytes/second) 30 metres devices connected Maximum number of Up to
7 Type of data transmission security Key matching encryption WEP
(wireless equivalent privacy) and WPA (Wi-Fi protected access) are the
most common security systems) Depends on the router used (can be one
device or many devices) 100 metres (but can be obstructed by walls, etc.
reducing effective range to only a few metres) » 4.1.4 Cloud computing
(storage) Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is
stored on remote servers - there may be thousands of servers in many
different locations. The same data is stored on more than one server in
case of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data at any time.
This is known as data redundancy. The physical environment of the cloud
servers is owned and managed by a hosting company. There are three
common cloud storage systems: » Public cloud - this is a storage
environment where the customer/client and cloud storage provider are
different companies. >Private cloud - this is storage provided by a
dedicated environment behind a company firewall; customer/client and
cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity.
Hybrid cloud - this is a combination of the two previous environments;
some data resides in the private cloud and less-sensitive/less-commercial
data can be accessed from a public cloud storage provider. Instead of, or
in addition to, saving data on a local hard disk or other storage device, a
user can save their data 'in the cloud'. Advantages of cloud computing
(storage) > Customer/client files stored in the cloud can be accessed at
any time, from any device, anywhere in the world, as long as internet
access is available. There is no need for a customer/client to carry an
external storage device with them, or even use the same computer, to
store and retrieve information. The cloud provides the user with remote
backup of data, with obvious advantages in the event of data loss/disaster
recovery on their own computer. » If a customer/client has a failure of
their hard disk or backup device, cloud storage will allow recovery of their
data. > The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity (at a
price!). Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage) > Security aspects of
storing data in the cloud (see comments later on). » If the customer/client
has a slow or unstable internet connection, they could have many
problems accessing or downloading their data/files. 4.1 Networks 83 » 4
NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM Costs can be high if a large
storage capacity or high download/upload data transfer is required. The
potential fltlure of the edeud strage company is always possible- this
poses a risk of loss of all backup data. pheial computer manfactires
(espekal ablets an laptops) and mobile phone manufacturers are
encouraging customers to store or backup all their files cloud and can
acces ll files (for example, photos, videos, music or e-books) from any
device anywhere in the world. This has obvious advantages: » You do not
need to carry memory sticks around with you if you want to accessS your
files away from homе. You do not have to pay for large storage capacity
on your computer/tablet or mobile phone. Because the cloud is controlled
by external companies,they willensure that your files are backed up and
therefore reduce the possibility of losing irreplaceable data. The ability to
synchronise (sync) Files ensures they are automatically updated across all
devices; this means that the latest versionof a file saved on a desktop
computer, for example, is also availableon other devices, such as a
smartphone. > Cloud storage is also ideal for collaboration purposes; it
allows several users to edit and collaborate on a single file or document -
there is no need to worry about tracking the latest version or which
usermade the changes. In spite of all these obvious advantages, there are
still securityworries about using cloud storage. The main fears are data
security and data loss. Data security using cloud storage/computing
Companies that transfervast amounts of confidential data from their own
systems to a cloud service provider are potentially relinquishing control of
their own data security. This raises a number of questions: >What physical
security exists regarding the building where the data is housed? >How
good is the cloud service provider's resistance to natural disasters or
power cuts? What safeguards exist regarding personnel who work for the
cloud service company? Can they use their authorisation codes to access
confidential data for monetary purposes? Data loss There is a risk that
important and irreplaceable data could be lost from cloud storage
facilities. Actions from hackers (gaining access to accounts or pharming
attacks, for example) could lead to loss or corruption of data. Users need
to be certain that sufficient safeguards exist to overcome these potentially
very harmful risks. In 2019, there were a number of breaches of cloud
security. We will briefly mention two of these breaches: 84 On 2 April, a
Mexican digital media company (called Cultura Colectiva) exposed 540
million Facebook accounts stored on one of their cloud servers; the data
included user profiles, user IDs, account names, likes and comments. 4.1
Networks >On29 July, Capital One Bank (in the USA) had some of their
cloud-based hacked exposing 80,000 bank account numbers, 140,000
social security data numbers and over one million government ID
numbers. 4.1.5Common network environments Extranets, intranets and
the internet Extranets, intranets and the internet are all common types of
network environment. You will find these types of network covered in
some depth in Chapter 10. 4.1.6 Network types This section willcover the
following types of network: >> local area network (LAN) >>wir wireless
local area network (WLAN) wide area network (WAN). Local area network
(LAN Local area networks (LANs) are usually within one building or
geographically near each other. A typical LAN will consist of a number of
computers and devices (for example, printers) which will be connected to
hubs or switches. One of the hubs or switches will usually be connected to
a router to allow the LAN to connect to external networks, such as the
internet. There are advantages of networking computers together using
LANS: » they allow the sharing of resources such as hardware (e.g.
printers and scanners) and software (e.g. word processors and photo
editing software) > they permit easy communication between users of the
LAN (e.g. by using simple text messaging between computers on the
network) they use a network administrator that ensures security and use
of the LAN is constantly monitored (e.g. the administrator can maintain
passwords and also monitor data traffic within the network). There are
also disadvantages of networking computers using LANs: > easier spread
of viruses throughout the whole network »queues for shared resources
(such as a printer) which can be frustrating >» slower access to external
networks » increased security risk when compared to stand-alone
computers > if the main server breaks down, in many types of network
structures, the network will no longer function properly. Wireless local area
network (WLAN) Wireless LANS (WLANs) are similar to LANs, but there are
no wires or cables. In other words, they provide wireless network
communications over fairly short distances using radio or infrared signals
instead of using cables. Devices, known as access points (APs), are
connected into a wired network at fixed locations. Because of the limited
range, most commercial LANS (for example, a college campus or an
airport) need several APs to permit uninterrupted wireless
communications. The APs use either spread-spectrum Link See Section
10.2 for more on extranets, intranets and the internet. 85 4 NETWORKS
AND THE EFFECTS OF USINGTHEM technology (which is a wideband radio
frequencywith a range of about 30 to eemetres) or infrared,buideban raio
re short renge (about 1-2 metres) and is easily blocked, and therefore
infrared has timited use. structure. End-users access the WLAN through
wir The AP receives and transmits data between the WLAN and the wired
network wireless LAN adapterswhich are built into their devices. AP 5 AP
Figure 4.10 Wireless LAN set-up Wired versus wireless Table 4.4 compares
wired LANs and wireless LANS. Table 4.4 Wired versus wired LAN Wireless
networking It is easier to expand the networks and it is not necessary to
connect the devices using cables This gives devices increased mobility, as
long as they are within range of the APs No cabling, so there is a safety
improvement and increased flexibility There is an increased chance of
interference from external sources Data is less secure than with wired
systems; it is easier to intercept radio waves and microwaves than cables;
it is essential to protect data transmissions using encryption Data
transmission rate is still slower than for cabled networks although it
continues to imp rove It is possible for signals to be stopped by thick walls
(for example, in old houses) and there may be areas of variable signal
strength leading to 'drop out' Wired networking Using cables produces a
more reliable and stable network; wireless connectivity is often subject to
interference Data transfer rates tend to be faster and there will not be any
'dead spots Setting up cabled networks tends to be cheaper overall in
spite of the need to buy and install cable However, cabled networks lose
the ability for devices to be mobile; they must be close enough to allow
for cable connections Having lots of wires can lead to a number of
hazards, such as tripping hazards, overheating of connections (leading to
potential fire risk) and disconnection of cables during routine office
cleaning 86 4.2 Network issues and communication Advice Wi-Fi is a series
of protocols that enable a WLAN to be set up. Wide area networks (WANS)
Wide area networks (WANs) are used where computers or networks are
situated a long distance from each other geographically (for example, in a
different city or country). As mentioned earlier, if a number of LANs are
joined together using a router, then they can form a WAN. The network of
ATMs (automated teller machines) used by banks is one of the most
common examples of the use ofa WAN. Because of the long distances
between devices, WANs usually make use of some public communications
network (such as telephone lines or satellites), but they use dedicated or
leased communication lines, which can be less expensive can use and also
more secure (less risk of hacking, for example). A typical WAN will consist
of end systems and intermediate systems (Figure 4.11). 1 4 2 In Figure
4.11, 1, 3, 7 and 10 are known as end systems and the remainder are
known as intermediate systems. The distance between each system can
be considerable, especially if the WAN is run by a multinational company.
5 3 6 7 8 10 ‫ و‬Figure 4.11 WAN end systems and intermediate systems
The following is used as a guide for deciding the 'size' of a network: >»
WAN: 100 km to over 1000 km » MAN: 1 km to 100 km LAN: 10 m to 1000
m (1 km) Advice Metropolitan area networks (MANs) is outside the
syllabus; this is included here for comparison purposes only. 4.2 Network
issues and communication 4.2.1 Security issues regarding'data transfer
Many aspects of security (such as hacking, phishing, pharming and
viruses) are covered in depth in Chapter 8 (Section 8.3). This section
covers some of the more general aspects of internet security, together
with how we use networks to communicate. 4.2.2 Passwords Passwords
are used in many instances when accessing the internet. For example: »
when accessing your email account >> when carrying out online banking
>> accessing social networking sites. 87 4 NETWORKSAND THE
EFFECTSOF USINGTHEM There are many more instances when youou
might need to type in a password and, Wahany cases,auser 10. 1 is
important thatpasswords are protected. Some ways of doing this are
described below: Run anti-spyware software to make sure that your
passwords are not being relayed back to whoever put the spyware on
yourur computer Change passwords on a regular basisis in case it has
come into the possession of another user illegally or accidentally.
Passwords should not be easy toto crack (e.g. your favourite colour, name
of a as either strong (hard to pet or favourite rock group); passwords are
grouped as crack or guess) orweak (relatively easy to crack orguess).
Strong passwords should contain: - at least one capital letter - at least one
numerical value - at leastone other keyboard character (such as @, *, &
etc.). An example of a strong password is: Sy12@#TT9Okj=0 An example
of a weak password is: GREEN1 Exercise 4b Which of the following
areweak passwords and which are strong passwords? Explain your
decision in each case. i 25-May-2000 ii Pas5word iii ChapTer015 iv
AbC*N55! 12345X 4.2.3 Other authentication methods Passwords are one
of the most common types of authentication (that is, a way of proving
your identity). This section will look at a number of other types of
authentication: » zero login > biometrics > magnetic stripes > smart
cards physical tokens electronic tokens. Zero login and biometrics The
Fast ID online (FIDO) Alliance and WWW Consortium (W3C) announced a
new technology standard that allows users to login to computer systems
without the need to type in a password. The mishandling of personal data
over the years now means we can no longer regard data, such as
passwords, as being secret or protected. Zerologin essentially relies on
devices being smart and secure enough to instantlyrecognise a user by a
number of features based on: > biometrics » behavioural patterns. 4.2
Network issues and communication Instead of using passwords, the zero
login system builds up a complex user profilebased on the above two
features. Biometrics is already used on many smartphonesas a way of
logging into the phone. By placing your finger on the screen, a fingerprint
recognition system recognises the user and unlocks the phone. Newer
systems allow the user to simply look at their smartphone screen (using
face recognition) to unlock it. Behavioural patterns include: how you walk,
your typing speed, your normal location, howyou swipe the screen, and so
on. These behavioural patterns, coupled with biometric data, should be
enough to uniquely identify a user, and allow them into a system without
actually supplying any passwords or other security information. The
advantages of zero login are fairly clear: enhanced security (it is difficult
to copy biometrics and behavioural patterns) and an easier and much
quicker way to login to a system. But there are certain disadvantages that
need consideration: > How do users know when they are being
monitored? How do you know if and when you have been logged out? >>
How well protected is it in reality? Magnetic stripe cards Magnetic stripe
cards are also covered in Chapters 2 and 6. The cards have a magnetic
stripe on the reverse side (made up of tiny magnetic particles on a plastic
film). Each particle can act as a north-pole or a south-pole (which
corresponds to the two binary values of 0 and 1). The stripe is read by
swiping it through a card reader. Data such as name, ID number, sex, and
date of birth may be contained on a magnetic stripe when used as a
security device to allow entry to a building, for example. Access will only
be allowed if the scanned data matches data in a database. Some ID cards
also use a holographic image (hologram). These are designed to make
forgery of the card more difficult. Holographic images change colour or
appear to have a moving object as the image is viewed from different
angles. Because these are difficult to copy, it prevents somebody simply
photocopying a card and using it illegally. Another form of security is to
have a photographic image of the card user printed onto the card surface.
This prevents a stolen card from being used, because the image etched
into the card will not match the perpetrator. ГО РА Figure 4.12 Sample
holographic security images Link Biometrics, which includes fingerprint
recognition, face recognition and voice recognition, are covered in detail
in Sections 6.10 and 8.3. CO 4 NETWORKS AND THEEFFECTS OF USING
THEM Advantages of magnetic stripe cards They are easy toto use. It is
not an expensive technology. Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated
(if lost or stolen). key cards, network access ple, door key The cards can
be multi-purpose (for example, do cards or used in vending machines to
buy fofood or drink). Disadvantagesof magnetic stripe cards Lesssecure
than, for example, biometric methods (no encryption is used and the
stripe contents can be copied fairly easily). The cards wear out with a lot
of use. Magnetic readers often fail to read the cardson first attempt. Smart
cards By inserting a tag (chip and antenna) into a security card, it can act
as a smart contactless card (that is, it can be read from a distance and
does not have to be swiped through a card reader). The chip onon t the
smart card can store data such as name, security number,sex, date of
birth and a PIN. Smart cards can therefore be used as a security device. If
the card is in a wallet or a pocket as the owner of the card walks up to a
security gate, readers on either side of the gate quickly scan the security
data stored on the RFID tag embedded in the card. The user will then be
invited to enter a PIN on the keypad. Ifall details match, then access will
be allowed. Physical tokens A physical (or hardware) token is a form of
authentication in the form of a physical, solid object. The user's
interaction with a login system is used to prove that the user has
possession of the token. Physical tokens contain internal clocks and when
a PIN and other authentication details are entered, then a one-time
password (OTP) is generated. The OTP is shown on a small screen. The
code changes on a regular basis and is usually only valid for less than a
minute. We willuse banking as our example of its use. A customer has
logged on to the bank's [Link] get to a web page which requires
some form of authentication to prove who they are. To do this, they need
to use a physical token supplied by the bank: >The customer inserts their
debit card into the top of the token device (first authentication step) and
the device either recognises the card as genuine or rejects it. The device
then asks the customer to press 'IDENTIFY' and then enter their PIN
(second authentication step). A one-time password is then shown on the
device screen – this is usually an eight-digit code. The customer now goes
back to their bank web page and enters the eightdigit code. > They are
now given access to their account. This clearly enhances security,
because a thief needs to have in their possession: the token device,a
cloned card and the PIN to allow them to gain access. .90 Link For more on
smartand contactless cardtechnology, and RFsee Chapters 2 and3044
1216 IDENTIFY 2 3 7 CLEAR ENTEFigure 4.13 Example odisconnected
physicaltoken device used inbanking This is a classic example of a multi-
factor authentication method. There are two types of physical tokens: 1 2
a disconnected physical token - this is the type described above,where a
separate device is used, requiring the user to key in data manually using a
keypad a connected physical token - this type of token transmits the
generated one-time password directly to a computer through a USB
connection; the user does not need to manually enter data. Electronic
tokens Electronic (software) tokens are software installed on a user's 4.2
Network issues and communication Figure 4.14 Connected physical token
device, such as a smartphone. Suppose a user wishes to log on to a
website using their tablet computer. This website requires electronic
tokens to be used to authenticate the user. The user has already installed
the electronic token app on their smartphone. When the website requests
the user to authenticate who they are, the user opens the app on their
smartphone. The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is valid
for less than a minute. The user enters this OTP when prompted by the
website, together with some other form of authentication, such as PIN,
touch ID or face ID. The website server runs the same software as the
app. Because both the server and smartphone have synchronised clocks,
they will generate the same numbers. Once the OTP and other form of
authentication are verified by the website, the user will be allowed access.
4.2.4 Anti-malware software Refer to Chapter 8 for further information on
the running of anti-malware software. In this section, we will concentrate
on the use of a type of anti-malware software, known as anti-virus
software, to protect devices against a potential virus attack. Anti-virus
software should be loaded onto a computer and then run to allow all
software and devices to be scanned for viruses. Whenever data or
software is downloaded or being transferred to another device, it is
essential that a virus check is carried out on that other device too.
Running anti-virus software in the background on a computer will
constantly check for virus attacks. Although various types of anti-virus
software work in different ways they all have the following common
features: » They check software or files before they are run or loaded on a
computer. Anti-virus software compares a possible virus against a
database of known viruses. They carry out heuristic checking - this is the
checking of software for types of behaviour that could indicate a possible
virus; this is useful if software is infected by a virus not yet on the
database. Any possible files or programs which are infected are put into
quarantine which: allows the virus to be automatically deleted, or allows
the user to make the decision about deletion (it is possible that the user
knows that the file or program is not infected by a virus - this is known as
a false positive and is one of the drawbacks of anti-virus software). Link
For more on malware see Section 8.3. » 4 NETWORKSAND THE EFFECTS
OF USING THEM Anti-virus software needs to be kept up to date because
new viruses are constantly being discovered. Full system checks need to
be carried out once a week, for example, because some viruses lie
dormant and would only be picked up by this full system scan. 4.2.5
Electronic conferencing This section will consider three types of electronic
conferencing: >» video conferencing audio conferencing web
conferencing. Video conferencing Video conferencing is a communication
method that uses both video and sound. It is a substitute for face-to-face
conferences between a number of people, who may be in a different part
of the country or live [Link] is carried out in real time and makes use
of some form of network. The basic hardware includes: webcams large
monitors/television screens microphones speakers. There are a few items
to consider when a conference is about to begin: Link There is
furtha"information on vid calls andVolP IP in Section 6.1. Figure 4.15
Video-conferencing room It is essential to agree a time and date for the
conference to take place. The delegates in each conference room must log
into the video-conference system. The video-conference set-up needs to
be checked before the meeting goes live. Webcams need to be placed in
the correct position so that all the delegates in the room are within visual
contact (the webcams will capture the images and then transmit them to
the other delegates – they will see the images on their own large screens).
Microphones need to be placed centrally so that all of the delegates can
speak - the sound is picked up by the microphones and is transmitted to
the other delegates (they hear the voices through speakers in their own
conference room). It is important for one person to be the main contact in
each conference room to make sure each delegate is able to be heard;
this is particularly important if more than two video-conference rooms are
linked up at the same time. In addition to the hardware items described
above, it is also important to realise that software plays an important role
in a successful video conference. 92 4.2 Network issues and
communication » » ▼Table4.5 Software used in video conferencing
Software Webcamand microphone software drivers CODEC Echo
cancellation software Description It is vital that the correct software is
used to ensure that the webcam and microphone transmit their images
and sound to the other delegates (these are sometimes referred to as
hardware drivers). CODEC can stand for COder-DECoder or COmpression-
DECompression. The first is used to encode or decode the digital data
stream to allow data to be transmitted (encoded) and played back
(decoded). The second is used to compress the data before it is
transmitted and then decompress it again at the receiving conference
room. Echo cancellation software allows talking to take place in real time
and permits the synchronisation of communication. Microphones can pick
up sound from the speakers (creating an echo); this software copies
received signals and checks for parts of the signal that reappear but are
delayed slightly. The reappearing parts are removed from the signal (the
echo is removed). Advantages of using video conferencing As people are
in their own building, it is much easier to access important documents or
bring in 'experts' at key parts of the conference - this would be difficult if
they were a long way away from their office. It is possible to hold
conferences at short notice (a conference date can be set up within a few
hours as no person needs to travel very far). >Not travelling physically to
meetings reduces costs: - reduced travelling costs -no need to pay for
hotel accommodation or venue hire - it also reduces the cost of taking
people away from their work for two or three days to travel – people are
still paid their wage even though they are not in the office, so this is a
large ‘hidden' cost. It may be better to use video conferencing than have
delegates travel to potentially unsafe places around the world. It is better
for the environment – less travel means less pollution. » It connects
people in an organisation who might be otherwise left out, for example,
people not based at the headquarters. Disadvantages of using video
conferencing » There is potential time lag in responses/delays when
talking. >» Images can jerk – usually due to poor internet/network
performance or poor bandwidth. » » It can be very expensive to set up in
the first place (both the hardware and the software are expensive to
purchase and get set up correctly). There can be problems if the delegates
live in different countries where the time zone differences are large.
Training people to use the system correctly can be both costly and time
consuming. It can be demotivating for staff if they believe that one of the
'perks' of their job is international travel. The whole system relies on a
good network connection - if it breaks down or the signal strength is
diminished in any way, then the video conference can be almost unusable.
93 4 4NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM Audio conferencing
Audio conferencing refers to meetings held between people using audio
(sound) equipment. Audio conferencing can be done over the standard
telephone network (often phone conference is detailed below. referred to
as a phone conference). The procedure to be carried out during a 1 The
organiser of the phone conference is given two PINs by the phone
company. One PIN is the personal PIN (e.g. 2151) given to the organiser
and the second PIN is the participant's PIN (e.g. 8422). 2 The organiser
contacts allof the participantsand informs them of their PIN and the date
and time of the phone conference. 3 When the phone conference is about
to start, the organiser dials the conference phone number and, once they
are connected, keys in their personal PIN (2151 in this case). The
participants then call the same conference number tojoin in - once they
get through they each input the PIN given to them by the organiser (8422
in this case). Without this PIN, it would be impossible to join the phone
conference. Figure 4.16 Audio conferencing The equipment required for an
audio conference over a standard telephone network normally just
includes a standard telephone. It is also possible to hold an audio
conference using a computer, as long as a microphone and speakers are
connected. This makes use of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP). It is also
possible to connect an internet telephone, which usually plugs into the
router or other internet device. In this case equipment can include: > a
computer (with built-in microphones and speakers) > external microphone
and/or speakers >> an internet phone > a standard phone. Using VoIP
allows an organiser to create a group of people to take part in the
conference call. The group is created by dragging and dropping user
details into 94 Link For more on VolP stSection 6.1. 4.2 Network issues and
communication the group. When the conference is to take place, the
organiser clicks on the reguiredgroup and the conference is initiated.
UsingVoIP allows communication using voice, instant messaging and video
(byusing anattached webcam). If some of the users do not have an
internet connection or do not have access to a computer, it is possible to
add actual telephone numbers (landline or mobile) to the created group.
The only real drawback is the quality of the sound when using this
technique because it is totally reliant on a fast, stable broadband
connection - otherwise 'drop out' (loss of voice on occasions), echoing
(when the user can hear their own voice being echoed back as they
speak) or a very noisy line can happen, making it difficult to understand.
Web conferencing Web conferencing (often referred to as a webinar or
webcasts) uses the internet to permit conferencing to take place. Multiple
computers are used with this system, all connected over the internet. As
with video conferencing, it is carried out in real time and allows the
following types of meeting to take place: » business meetings to discuss
new ideas presentations > online education or training. The only
requirement is a computer and a high-speed, stable internet connection.
To carry out web conferencing, each user either downloads an application
or logs on to a website from a link supplied in an email from the
conference organiser. Delegates can leave or join the conference as they
wish. The organiser can decide on who can speak at any time using the
control panel on their computer. If a delegate wishes to speak, they raise
a flag next to their name. Delegates can post comments using instant
messaging for all delegates to see at any time. Some of the main features
include: >» Slide presentations using presentation software can be posted
on the conference website in advance of the meeting. « The host's
computer screen can be shared for live presentations, or other live
demonstrations. It is possible for any delegate to draw or write on a
'whiteboard' using their own keyboard or mouse. » It is possible to
transmit images or videos using the webcam throughout the conference.
Documents can be shared by first uploading them to the website before
the conference begins. > As described earlier, it is possible to chat
verbally or by using instant messaging throughout the conference. As
indicated earlier, there is cross-over between web conferencing, video
conferencing and audio conferencing through the use of webcams and the
builtin microphone and speakers. It is possible to have a conference using
any device which allows these functions (for example, tablets and
smartphones would both permit this type of group communication). 95 4
NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM Exam-style questions 1 A
company is setting up a video conference. a Name three computer
hardware devices they would need. b The company could have set up a
web-conference rather than a video-conference. Describe what is meant
by a web-conference. [3] [4] Cambridge IGCSE Information and
Communication Technology (0417) Paper 11 Q8, 2 Both Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth can be used to enable devices to communicate wirelessly.
Describe the differences in how Bluetooth and Wi-Fi both operate. 3 with
Hubs and switches are both used to enable devices to communicate each
other in a network. 4 a Describe the differences and similarities switches
in the use of hubs and in a network. bA bridge is another device used in
network connectivity. Describe the function of a bridge. May/June 2017 c
Routers are used to allow local area networks to connect to external
networks. network Local area network 'A' is in Europe and local area 'B' is
in India. Describe how routers are used to enable a computer on network
'A' to send data to a computer on network 'B'. d Describe the main
differences between routers and bridges. Authentication is an important
part of network security. Explain the meaning of the following three types
of authentication. In each case, also give an example of its use. Zero login
b Physical token [6] [4] [2] [3] [3] c Electronic token 5 Six features of
network devices are given in the table below. For each feature, tick (✓) the
appropriate box to indicate whether it refers to a router, hub or switch.
Feature Used to connect devices together to form a local area network
(LAN) The destination MAC address is looked up before the data packet is
sent to the correct device Used to connect LANs to other, external
networks Uses both MAC and IP addresses to enable data packets to be
sent to the correct device on another network [9] [6] Router Switch Hub
All data packets are sent to all the devices on the network Data packets
are sent only to a specific device on the same network 99 Exam-style
questions [2] [3] [4] [3] 8 a Describewhat is meant by a virus. b Describe
three of the features you would expect to find in any anti-virus software. 7
a Explainhow magnetic stripe cards could be used to control the entryand
exit to a security building. b Describe how these magnetic stripe cards
could be improved to increase the security of the building.
Sevendescriptions are shown on the left and ten computer terms are
shown on the right. By drawing arrows, connect each description to the
correct computer term. Form of authentication in the form of hardware
devices; uses periodically changing random numbers to log in to a secure
system Type of network that covers a huge geographical area, such as a
country or different continent Devices used to connect two LANs together
that use the same protocols, but cannot communicate outside the two
LANs Authentication software installed on a user's smartphone that
generates a onetime password Type of login authentication that relies on
biometrics and behavioural patterns [7] Password Zero login Physical
token Wide area network Internet Network interface card Hub Devices that
connect computers together to form a LAN; directs data packets to a
specific device or computer only Bridge Electronic token Hardware needed
to connect a device to а network; a MAC address is hardwired or hard-
coded into the device at manufacture 9 a Explain what is meant by cloud
computing. b Give three advantages of storing data on the cloud. c Give
three disadvantages of storing data on the cloud. Switch [3] [3] [3] 97 4
NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM 10 Name each of the six
network devices labelled 'A' to 'F' in the diagrams below: :98 a computer
computer Local area network computer "A" computer computer computer
b computer computer "B" computer LAN 1 C server computer computer
computer LAN 3 computer computer computer LAN 2 "D" internet