Helwan University - Faculty of Engineering

Electronics and Communications Engineering Department

Electronic Circuits
Diodes: Structure & Operation & Applications
Presented By:
Assistant Professor: Azza M. Anis
❑ If piece of intrinsic semiconductor is doped with acceptors on one
side and with donors on the other side, a boundary called pn junction is
formed between the resulting p region and n region and a diode is
created.
Acceptors Doners
(𝑁𝐴 ) Intrinsic Semiconductor (𝑁𝐷 )

p region n region
❑ The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from acceptor atoms
and only a few thermally generated electrons (minority carriers).
❑ The n region has many electrons (majority carriers) from donor
atoms and only a few thermally generated holes (minority carriers).
❑ Free electrons near the junction in n region diffuse into p region
where they combine with holes near the junction.

The n region loses

The p region
electrons’ free electrons as
loses holes as the movement they diffuse across
electrons and
the junction.
holes combine.
❑ Layer of positive charges (donor ions) near the junction is created
in n region.
❑ Layer of negative charges (acceptor ions) near the junction is created
in p region.

The p region The n region loses

loses holes. free electrons.

❑ The region near the junction is called a depletion region.

❑ The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the junction
is depleted (empty) of mobile charges (free electrons and holes).
❑ The positive and the negative charges in the depletion region
create an electric field.

❑ This electric field represents a barrier or a wall that prevent the

flow of the carriers across the junction.
❑ If electric field (E) is weak, electrons in n region continue to
diffuse across the junction, then more and more positive and negative
charges are created near the junction.

p region n region

❑ When electric field is large enough, the diffusion process stops.

❑ Diffusion process stops when the layer of negative charges is strong
enough to repel any further diffusion of electrons from n region into
p region.

electrons’
movement

p region n region
❑ This electric field represents
a barrier or a wall that prevent
the flow of the carriers across
the junction.
❑ This electric field results in a difference of potential (𝑉𝐵 ) called
barrier potential across the depletion region.

❑ Barrier Potential (difference

of potential ) is expressed in
volts and given by:

𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑇 ln
𝑛𝑖2

VT is thermal voltage. o
At room temp. (300 K): 𝑉𝑇 = 0.025 𝑉
Diode Symbol
The p region of diode is called the anode (A) and is connected to a
conductive (metal) terminal. The n region is called the cathode (K) and
is connected to a second conductive terminal.

The anode is represented by a triangle, or an arrow and the cathode is

represented by a vertical line.
Diode Biasing
refers to applying an external voltage source across it
to establish certain operating conditions.
There are two biasing conditions: forward and reverse.
A K A K

+ - - +
Forward Biasing Reverse Biasing
➢Forward Operation
Is a condition in which the positive side of a voltage source is connected
to p region (anode) of a diode and the negative side of a voltage source is
connected to n region (cathode).

A K

+ -
The negative side of a voltage source pushes free electrons in the n
region toward the pn junction.
As electrons in n region flow into depletion region, the number of the
positive ions is reduced.

The reduction in the positive ions results in the depletion region to

narrow.
The voltage source imparts sufficient energy to free electrons to overcome
the barrier potential of the depletion region and move into the p region.

Electron Current

This flow of free electrons

results in electron current.
Similarly, the holes in the p region move toward the junction.

As holes in p region flow into

the depletion region, number
of negative ions is reduced, Hole Current
and the width of the depletion
region is reduced. The flow of holes results
in the hole current.
 A K
Forward Current (𝑰𝒇 )
If
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝐷 + -
𝐼𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠 exp
η 𝑉𝑇 Electron Current
𝑉𝐷 is the voltage across diode
𝐼𝑠 is the saturation current
η is a constant =1 for Ge , 2 for Si

VT = 0.025 V at 300 oK

Hole Current
➢Reverse Operation
Is a condition in which the negative side of a voltage source is connected
to p region (anode) of diode and the positive side of a voltage source is
connected to n region (cathode).

A K

- +
The positive side of the voltage source attracts electrons in the n region
away from the junction.

Additional positive ions are created that result in a widening of the

depletion region.
Similarly, holes in the p region are pulled toward the negative side of the
voltage source.

Additional negative ions are created that result in a widening of the

depletion region.
Reverse Current (𝑰𝒓 )
Minority electrons in the p region are pushed toward the junction by the
negative side of voltage source and pass through the depletion region.

Electron Current
Similarly, minority holes in the n region
move away from the positive side of
voltage source.

The flow of the minority carriers

results in an extremely small current. Hole Current
𝐼𝑟 = 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼𝑠

𝐼𝑠 is the saturation current Electron Current

A K

Ir

- + Hole Current
Diode Current (𝑰𝑫 )
The arrow direction in the diode symbol indicates the direction of
current through the diode.
Forward Current
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑓 − 𝐼𝑟
𝑉𝐷 𝐴 𝐾
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 exp − 𝐼𝑠 𝐼𝐷
η 𝑉𝑇

𝑉𝐷 Reverse Current
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 exp −1
η 𝑉𝑇
𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝐷 η 𝑉𝑇
exp ≡𝑒
η 𝑉𝑇
Example-1
Consider a diode is doped with NA corresponding to 1 acceptor atom
per 108 germanium atoms. Calculate the barrier potential (𝑉𝐵 ) at
room temperature. Assume ND= 103 NA .
Repeat for silicon diode.
Solution:
𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
Barrier Potential is given by: 𝑽𝑩 = 𝑽𝑻 𝐥𝐧
𝒏𝟐𝒊
At room temperature,
ni (Si) = 1.5x1010 atoms/cm3
ni (Ge) = 2.5x1013 atoms/cm3
𝑉𝑇 = 0.025 𝑉
 𝑁𝐴 = 1 ∶ 108 Germanium atoms

But total number of germanium atoms equals 4.4x1022 atoms/cm3

𝑁𝐴 = ? ? ∶ 4.4 x 1022 Germanium atoms

1 x 4.4 x 1022 14 atoms/cm3

𝑁𝐴 = = 4.4x10
108

𝑁𝐷 = 103 𝑁𝐴 = 103 x 4.4x1014 = 4.4x1017 atoms/cm3

4.4x1014 𝑥4.4x1017
𝑉𝐵 = 0.025 𝑥 ln 2 Volts
2.5x1013
Example-2
The resistivity of two sides of germanium diode is 2 Ω.cm (p side)
and 1 Ω.cm (n side). Calculate the barrier potential (𝑉𝐵 ) at room
temperature. Repeat for silicon diode.
Solution:
𝑵𝑨 𝑵𝑫
Barrier Potential is given by : 𝑽𝑩 = 𝑽𝑻 𝐥𝐧
𝒏𝟐𝒊
At room temperature,
ni (Si) = 1.5x1010 atoms/cm3
ni (Ge) = 2.5x1013 atoms/cm3
𝑉𝑇 = 0.025 𝑉
 1 1 1 1
𝜌𝑝 = = = =2 𝑁𝐴 =
𝜎𝑝 𝑞 𝑝 𝜇𝑝 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝜇𝑝 2 𝑞 𝜇𝑝

1 1 1 1
𝜌𝑛 = = = =1 𝑁𝐷 =
𝜎𝑛 𝑞 𝑛 𝜇𝑛 𝑞 𝑁𝐷 𝜇𝑛 𝑞 𝜇𝑛

At room temperature,
μn (Si) = 1300 cm2 /V.s
μp (Si) = 500 cm2 /V.s After that find barrier potential using:
μn (Ge) = 3800 cm2 /V.s 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝑇 ln
μp (Ge) = 1800 cm2 /V.s 𝑛𝑖2
Example-3
If the reverse saturation current in a silicon diode is 1nA, what is the
applied voltage for a diode current 2.5 μA at room temp.

Solution:
𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
η 𝑉𝑇

−6 −9
𝑉𝐷
2.5𝑥10 = 1𝑥10 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
2 𝑥 0.025
 𝑉𝐷
2.5𝑥10−6 = 1𝑥10−9 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
2 𝑥 0.025
2.5𝑥10−6 𝑉𝐷
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −1
1𝑥10−9 2 𝑥 0.025

2.5𝑥10−6 𝑉𝐷
+ 1 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝐥𝐧 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
1𝑥10−9 2 𝑥 0.025

2.5𝑥10−6 𝑉𝐷
ln −9
+1 =
1𝑥10 2 𝑥 0.025

2.5𝑥10−6
𝑉𝐷 = 2 𝑥 0.025 𝑥 ln −9
+1 Volts
1𝑥10
Voltage-Current Characteristic of Diode
The graphical relationship between the voltage and the current in a diode.

❑ With zero volt across the diode, there is zero current.

𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 exp −1
❑ If a voltage across a diode is increased above η 𝑉𝑇
zero volt and below the barrier potential, the
𝐼𝐷
current increases very little.

❑ When a voltage across a diode reaches the

barrier potential, the current increases rapidly.
𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝐵
❑ When a reverse voltage is applied across a diode, there is an extremely
small reverse current through a diode.

𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 exp −1
η 𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝐷

𝐼𝐷 = −𝐼𝑠

𝐼𝐷
❑ If the reverse voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown
voltage (𝑽𝑩𝑫 )
❑ The high reverse voltage (𝑽𝑩𝑫 ) imparts energy to the minority
electrons so that they speed through the p region, they collide
with atoms and knock valence electrons out of orbit and into
the conduction band. 𝑽𝑩𝑫
𝑉𝐷

𝑉
𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦: 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜇𝑛 𝐸 = 𝜇𝑛
𝐿
𝐼𝐷
❑ The newly created conduction electrons repeat the process.
❑ As a result, the numbers of electrons quickly multiply, and the
multiplication of conduction electrons is known as the avalanche
effect.
❑ The resulting conduction electrons go through the n region and
result in a very high reverse current. 𝑽𝑩𝑫
𝑉𝐷
❑ The resulting heating from the increased
reverse current will damage the diode.

𝐼𝐷
Complete Voltage-Current Characteristic of Diode
𝐼𝐷

The reverse voltage does not

reach the breakdown voltage
of the diode.
𝑽𝑩𝑫

𝑉𝐷
𝑉𝐵
Piecewise Linear Characteristic of Practical Diode
ID

𝐕𝐁
Forward Biasing
𝐈𝐃
VD
VB
Reverse Biasing
𝐈𝐃 V𝐷 ≤ VB V𝐷 > VB
V𝐴𝐾 ≤ VB V𝐴𝐾 > VB

V𝐴 − V𝐾 ≤ VB V𝐴 − V𝐾 > VB

V𝐴 ≤ V𝐾 + VB V𝐴 > V𝐾 + VB
Piecewise Linear Characteristic of Ideal Diode

Reverse Biasing Forward Biasing ID

A A
VB =0
Open Closed
Switch Switch Rf =0
𝐈𝐃 = 𝟎 𝐈𝐃 Rr =∞

K K 0 VD
V𝐴 ≤ V𝐾 V𝐴 > V𝐾 Ideal diode model neglects the effect
of barrier potential, forward resistance,
and reverse current.
Example-4
The circuit shown uses an ideal diode. Find Vo when VBB=9V
𝑨 𝑲

Solution:

(𝑉𝐴 ) > (𝑉𝐾 )

∴ Assume diode is forward

Kirchhoff Voltage Law (KVL)
states the sum of all voltage differences around any closed loop is zero.

෍𝑉 = 0
 ෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎

9 − 0.6𝑘 (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − (0.3𝑘)𝐼1 = 0

𝑰𝟐

𝑰𝟏

෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎

9 − 0.6 𝑘 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 0.4𝑘 𝐼2 = 0
 Analysis of the first equation: Analysis of the second equation:

9 − 0.6𝑘 (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − (0.3𝑘)𝐼1 = 0 9 − 0.6𝑘 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 0.4𝑘 𝐼2 = 0

9 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼2 − (0.3𝑘)𝐼1 = 0
9 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼2 − 0.4𝑘 𝐼2 = 0
9 − (0.6𝑘 + 0.3𝑘)𝐼1 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼2 = 0
9 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 − (0.6𝑘 + 0.4𝑘)𝐼2 = 0
9 − (0.9𝑘)𝐼1 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼2 = 0
9 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 − (1𝑘)𝐼2 = 0
9 = (0.9𝑘)𝐼1 + (0.6𝑘)𝐼2
9 = (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 + (1𝑘)𝐼2
 9 = (0.9𝑘)𝐼1 + (0.6𝑘)𝐼2
9 = (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 + (1𝑘)𝐼2 𝑥 − 0.6 in second equation

9 = (0.9𝑘)𝐼1 + (0.6𝑘)𝐼2
−5.4 = − 0.36 𝑘 𝐼1 − (0.6𝑘)𝐼2 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

3.6 = (0.54𝑘)𝐼1
3.6 𝑉 3.6 𝑉
= 𝐼1 =
(0.54 𝑘Ω ) (0.54 𝑥 103 Ω )

𝐼1 = 6.67 𝑥 10−3 𝐴 = 6.67 𝑚𝐴

9 = (0.6𝑘)𝐼1 + (1𝑘)𝐼2

9 = 0.6 𝑘 (6.67𝑚𝐴) + (1𝑘)𝐼2

9 = 0.6 𝑥 103 (6.67 𝑥 10−3 ) + (1𝑥 103 )𝐼2

9 = (4) + (1𝑥 103 )𝐼2

9 − 4 = (1𝑥 103 )𝐼2

5 = (1 𝑥 103 )𝐼2
5
3
= 𝐼2
(1𝑥 10 )

𝐼2 = 5 𝑥 10−3 = 5 𝑚𝐴
 +

𝑽𝒐
∵ 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟓 𝒎𝑨 = 𝑰𝑫
−
∵ 𝑰𝑫 = 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

∴ 𝑰𝑫 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

∴ our assumption is true 𝑉𝑜 = 0.4𝑘 𝑥 𝑰𝑫 = 2𝑉

Diode is forward
 Example-5
The diode D1 is germanium with a potential barrier (VB) 0.2V and an
incremental resistance (Rf) 20Ω whereas the diode D2 is silicon with a
potential barrier (VB) 0.6V and an incremental resistance (Rf) 15Ω.
Calculate the diodes currents.
Solution:
𝑨𝟏 𝑨2
(𝑉𝐴1 ) > (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵1 )

(𝑉𝐴2 ) > (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵2 ) 𝑲𝟏 𝑲2

∴ Assume D1 and D2 are forward

෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎 100 − 0.2 − (10 𝑘)(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − (20)𝐼1 = 0

𝑨𝟏 𝑨2
𝑰𝟐

𝑰𝟏

𝑲𝟏 𝑲2

෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎 100 − 0.6 − (10 𝑘))(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − (15)𝐼2 = 0

Analysis of the first equation:

100 − 0.2 − 10 𝑘 (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − (20)𝐼1 = 0

99.8 − 10 𝑘 𝐼1 − 10 𝑘 𝐼2 − (20)𝐼1 = 0

99.8 − 10 𝑘 + 20 𝐼1 − 10 𝑘 𝐼2 = 0

99.8 − 10 𝑥1000 + 20 𝐼1 − 10𝑥1000 𝐼2 = 0

99.8 − 10𝑥1000 + 20 𝐼1 − 10𝑥1000 𝐼2 = 0

99.8 − 10020 𝐼1 − 10000 𝐼2 = 0

99.8 = 10020 𝐼1 + 10000 𝐼2

Analysis of the second equation:

100 − 0.6 − 10 𝑘 (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − (15)𝐼2 = 0

99.4 − 10 𝑘 𝐼1 − 10 𝑘 𝐼2 − (15)𝐼2 = 0

99.4 − 10 𝑘 𝐼1 − 10 𝑘 + 15 𝐼2 = 0

99.4 − 10𝑥1000 𝐼1 − 10𝑥1000 + 15 𝐼2 = 0

99.4 − 10000 𝐼1 − 10015 𝐼2 = 0

99.4 = 10000 𝐼1 + 10015 𝐼2

99.8 = 10020 𝐼1 + 10000 𝐼2 𝑥 − 10000 in the first equation

99.4 = 10000 𝐼1 + 10015 𝐼2 𝑥 10020 in the second equation

− 10000 𝑥 99.8 = − 10000 10020 𝐼1 − 10000 10000 𝐼2

𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
10020 𝑥 99.4 = 10000 10020 𝐼1 + 10020 10015 𝐼2

− 10000 𝑥 99.8 + 10020 𝑥 99.4 = − 10000 10000 𝐼2 + 10020 10015 𝐼2

−2012 = −100000000 𝐼2 + 100350300 𝐼2

−2012
−2012 = 350300 𝐼2 = 𝐼2 = − 0.0057𝐴 = −5.7𝑚𝐴
350300
 𝐼2 = − 0.0057 A

99.8 = 10020 𝐼1 + 10000 𝐼2

99.8 = 10020 𝐼1 + 10000 (− 0.0057)

99.8 = 10020 𝐼1 − 57

99.8 + 57 = 10020 𝐼1
156.8 = 10020 𝐼1
156.8
= 𝐼1 = 0.01565𝐴 = 15.65𝑚𝐴
10020
∵ 𝐼𝐷2 = 𝐼2 = − 0.0057 A ∵ 𝑰𝑫𝟐 = negative value
∴ 𝑰𝑫𝟐 𝒎𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Our assumption is false
Assume again diode D2 is reverse
∵ 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

∴ 𝑰𝑫𝟏 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

∴ our assumption is true

Diode D1 is forward
New assumption: diode D1 is forward and diode D2 is reverse
𝑰𝒇 𝑹𝒓 not given
100 − 0.2 − (10𝑥1000 + 20)𝐼1 = 0 assume 𝑹𝒓 = ∞ (open circuit)

𝑨𝟏 𝑨2
99.8 − 10020 𝐼1 = 0

99.8 = 10020 𝐼1 𝑰𝟏
99.8
𝐼1 =
10020 𝑲2
𝑲𝟏

𝐼1 = 0.01A=10mA Values of diodes currents are positive

𝐼2 = 0 A 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐷1 = 0.01 A
∴ New assumption is true
𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐷2 = 0 A
Diode Applications

Diodes are used in many types of circuits such as:

❑ Digital Circuits.

❑ Clipping Circuits.

❑ Clamping Circuits.

❑ Rectifier Circuits.
❑ Digital Circuits
All digital circuits (such as microprocessor, memory, ...) contain
hardware elements called logic gates that perform the logical
operations on binary numbers (0 and 1).

𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑵𝑶𝑻 𝑮𝒂𝒕𝒆
𝑨𝑵𝑫 𝑮𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑶𝑹 𝑮𝒂𝒕𝒆
In digital circuits, binary 0 and 1 are represented by two voltage levels.

For example, zero volts (0V) represents binary 0, and +5V represents
binary 1.

In actuality, because of circuit variations,

binary 0 and 1 are represented by voltage 𝟓𝑽

ranges.

For example, any voltage between 0 and

𝟐𝑽
0.9V represents binary 0 and any voltage
between 2 and 5V represents binary 1. 𝟎. 𝟗𝑽

𝟎𝑽
Logic-level input voltage ranges are different from IC to another IC according to the internal device (diode or BJT or FET)
Logic gates (AND, OR) can be made by combining diodes and resistors.

𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔

T𝑤𝑜 − 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝐴𝑁𝐷 𝐺𝑎𝑡𝑒 T𝑤𝑜 − 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑂𝑅 𝐺𝑎𝑡𝑒

AND gate performs AND function, OR gate performs OR function,
its output is 1 if both inputs are 1 its output is 1 if either or both
and its output is 0 otherwise. inputs is 1 and its output is 0
otherwise.
𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔

Truth Table of AND Gate Truth Table of OR Gate

Example-6
For the circuit shown, the cut in voltage of a diode is 0.6V and the
voltage drop across a conducting (forward) diode is 0.7V.
Calculate Vo for the following input voltages:

(a) V1=5V and V2=5V

(b) V1=5V and V2=0V
(c) V1=0V and V2=0V
+

𝑽𝒐

−
Solution:
Cut in voltage = barrier voltage = VB= 0.6V
means
Voltage drop across Voltage across forward resistance
conducting (forward) diode plus barrier voltage is 0.7V.
is 0.7V.
0.7V

𝑨 𝑲
𝐕𝐁 𝐑𝒇
 (a) V1=5V and V2=5V
𝑨𝟏 𝑲𝟏
Assume:
(𝑉𝐴1 ) > (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )
𝑨2 𝑲2

(𝑉𝐴2 ) > (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )

∴ Assume D1 and D2 are forward

 𝑰𝟏
෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎
𝑨𝟏 𝑲𝟏

5 − (1𝑘)𝐼1 − 0.7 − (9𝑘)(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) = 0

5 − (1𝑘)𝐼2 − 0.7 − (9𝑘)(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) = 0

𝑨2 𝑲2
𝐼1 = 0.23𝑚𝐴
𝐼2 = 0.23𝑚𝐴
∵ 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐷1 =positive value 𝑰𝟐
∵ 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐷2 =positive value
∴ 𝐼𝐷1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐷2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∴ our assumption is true (D1 and D2 are forward)
To find 𝑽𝒐 , write KVL between 𝑽𝒐 and the branch (that you calculate
on it the voltage drop):

+ +
𝑉𝑜 − (9𝑘)(𝐼1 +𝐼2 ) = 0
𝑽𝒐

𝑉𝑜 = (9𝑘)(𝐼1 +𝐼2 ) − −

𝑉𝑜 = 4.07𝑉
 (b) V1=5V and V2=0V 𝑨𝟏 𝑲𝟏

Assume:
𝑨2 𝑲2
(𝑉𝐴1 ) > (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )

(𝑉𝐴2 ) < (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )

∴ Assume D1 is forward and D2 is reverse

 𝑰𝟏
෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎 𝑨𝟏 𝑲𝟏

5 − 1𝑘 𝐼1 −0.7 − (9𝑘)𝐼1 = 0
𝐼1 = 0.43𝑚𝐴 𝑨2 𝑲2

∵ 𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐷1 =positive value 𝐼2 = 0𝐴

∴ 𝐼𝐷1 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

∴ our assumption is true ( 𝐷1 is forward)

To find 𝑽𝒐 , write KVL between 𝑽𝒐 and the branch (that you calculate
on it the voltage drop):

+
+
𝑉𝑜 − (9𝑘)𝐼1 = 0
𝑽𝒐

𝑉𝑜 = (9𝑘)𝐼1 − −

𝑉𝑜 = 3.87𝑉
 (c) V1=0V and V2=0V
𝐕𝟏 = 𝟎𝐕 𝑨𝟏 𝑲𝟏
Assume:
(𝑉𝐴1 ) < (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )
𝐕𝟐 = 𝟎𝐕 𝑨2 𝑲2
(𝑉𝐴2 ) < (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )

∴ Assume D1 and D2 are reverse

To find 𝑽𝒐 , write KVL between 𝑽𝒐
and the branch (that you calculate
𝑰𝑫𝟏 = 𝟎𝑨
on it the voltage drop):

+ +
𝑰𝑫𝟐 = 𝟎𝑨

𝑽𝒐
−
−

𝑉𝑜 − 9𝑘 0𝐴 = 0

𝑉𝑜 = (9𝑘) 0𝐴 = 0𝑉
 Truth Table of OR Gate
Input Output
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑜
0V ≡ Binary 0 0V ≡ Binary 0 0V ≡ Binary 0
5V ≡ Binary 1 0V ≡ Binary 0 3.87V ≡ Binary 1
0V ≡ Binary 0 5V ≡ Binary 1 3.87V ≡ Binary 1
5V ≡ Binary 1 5V ≡ Binary 1 4.07V≡ Binary 1
𝑽𝟏
𝑽𝒐
𝑽𝟐
Example-7
For the circuit shown, assume identical diodes with barrier
potential (𝑽𝐁 ) of 0.6V and forward resistance (𝑹𝒇 ) of 30Ω
Calculate the output voltage (𝑽𝒐 ) for the following input voltages:
𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑫𝟏
𝑽𝟏

(a) V1=0V and V2=0V.

𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑫𝟐
𝑽𝟐
(b) V1=5V and V2=0V. +
(c) V1=5V and V2=5V. 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω
𝑽𝒐
𝟓𝑽

−
 Solution: 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟏 𝑫𝟏 𝑨𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟎
(a) V1=0V and V2=0V
𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲2 𝑫𝟐 𝑨2
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎
Assume:
𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω
(𝑉𝐴1 ) > (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )
(𝑉𝐴2 ) > (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵 ) 𝟓𝑽

∴ Assume D1 and D2 are forward

 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝟎. 𝟔𝑽
𝑲𝟏 3𝟎Ω 𝑨𝟏
෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑰𝟏
5 − (4700)(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − 0.6 − 30 + 270 𝐼1 = 0

5 − (4700)(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − 0.6 − 30 + 270 𝐼2 = 0 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲2 3𝟎Ω 𝟎. 𝟔𝑽 𝑨2

𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎
𝐼1 = 0.454𝑚𝐴 𝑰𝟐 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω

𝐼2 = 0.454𝑚𝐴 𝟓𝑽

The positive value of currents indicates our assumption is true

(D1 and D2 are forward).
To find 𝑽𝒐 , write KVL between 𝑽𝒐 and the branch (that you calculate
on it the voltage drop):
+
5 − 4.7𝑘 ( 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) − 𝑉𝑜 = 0
−
𝑽𝒐
5 − 4.7𝑘 (0.454𝑚𝐴 + 0.454𝑚𝐴) = 𝑉𝑜 +
−
5 − 4.3 = 𝑉𝑜

𝑉𝑜 = 0.7V
(b) V1=5V and V2=0V 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟏 𝑫𝟏 𝑨𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟓𝑽

Assume: 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲2 𝑫𝟐 𝑨2
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎
+
(𝑉𝐴1 ) < (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )
𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω
𝑽𝒐
(𝑉𝐴2 ) > (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )
𝟓𝑽
−
∴ Assume D1 is reverse and D2 is forward
 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟏 𝑨𝟏
෍ 𝑽 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒑 = 𝟎 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟓𝑽

5 − 4700 𝐼2 − 0.6 − 30 + 270 𝐼2 = 0

𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟐 3𝟎Ω 𝟎. 𝟔𝑽 𝑨𝟐
4.4 − 5000𝐼2 = 0
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟎
𝑰𝟐 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω
4.4 = 5000𝐼2
4.4 𝟓𝑽
= 𝐼2 = 0.88𝑚𝐴
5000
The positive value of current indicates our assumption is true
(D2 is forward).
To find 𝑽𝒐 , write KVL between 𝑽𝒐 and the branch (that you calculate
on it the voltage drop):

5 − 4.7𝑘 𝑥𝐼2 − 𝑉𝑜 = 0
+
−
5 − 4.7𝑘 𝑥 0.88𝑚𝐴 = 𝑉𝑜
+ 𝑽𝒐
5 − 4.1 = 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜 = 0.9V −
 (c) V1=5V and V2=5V 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟏 𝑫𝟏 𝑨𝟏
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟓𝑽
Assume:
𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲2 𝑫𝟐 𝑨2
𝑽𝟐 = 𝟓𝑽
(𝑉𝐴1 ) < (𝑉𝐾1 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )
𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω

(𝑉𝐴2 ) < (𝑉𝐾2 ) + (𝑉𝐵 )

𝟓𝑽

∴ Assume D1 and D2 are reverse

To find 𝑽𝒐 , write KVL between 𝑽𝒐
and the branch (that you calculate 𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟏 𝑨𝟏

on it the voltage drop): 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎𝑨

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟓𝑽
+ +
𝟐𝟕𝟎Ω 𝑲𝟐 𝑨𝟐
− 𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟓𝑽
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎𝑨 𝟒. 𝟕𝒌Ω

− 𝟓𝑽

5 + 4.7𝑘 𝑥 (0𝐴) − 𝑉𝑜 = 0

𝑉𝑜 = 5V
 Truth Table of AND Gate
Input Output
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑜
0V ≡ Binary 0 0V ≡ Binary 0 0.7V ≡ Binary 0
5V ≡ Binary 1 0V ≡ Binary 0 0.9V ≡ Binary 0
0V ≡ Binary 0 5V ≡ Binary 1 0.9V ≡ Binary 0
5V ≡ Binary 1 5V ≡ Binary 1 5V ≡ Binary 1

𝑽𝟏
𝑽𝒐
𝑽𝟐
❑ Clipping Circuits

Used to clip off (cut) parts of input signal above or below certain levels.

𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

Clipping
Circuit
❑ Clamping Circuits
Used to change a dc level of ac input voltage (adds a dc level to an ac voltage).
In other words, clamping circuit shifts ac voltage up on the positive
side or down on the negative side.

+dc
Clamping
𝑑𝑐 = Circuit

-dc
The shape of the input and the output voltage
waveform is identical, only the dc level is shifted.
❑ Rectifier Circuits
Used to convert ac signal to unidirectional signal.
Half-Wave Rectifier

Full-Wave Rectifier
Rectifier can be either half-wave rectifier or full-wave rectifier.