COURSE TITLE: Applied Chemistry for Emerging Electronics and Futuristic Devices (Electrical and Electronics Engineering Stream)

MODULE – 5
Advanced Electronic Materials and E-waste Managemnet

Module-5: Advanced Electronic Materials and E-waste Management 08 Hours

Stretchable and Wearable Microelectronics: Introduction, basic principle and working of lithography for
micro-patterned copper deposition. Applications of PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) in e-skin (electronic skin)
applications.
Sensing Methods: Introduction, principle and instrumentation of colorimetric sensors, application in the
estimation of copper in PCB industry. Principle and working of potentiometric sensors- applications in the
estimation of iron in steel. Conductometric sensors-application in the estimation of acid mixture in a sample.
E-waste: Introduction, need of e-waste management, sources & effects of e-waste on environment and human
health, extraction of gold from e-waste from bioleaching method.
Self learning: Extraction of lithium from spent lithium-ion batteries

STRETCHABLE AND WEARABLE MICROELECTRONICS

Microelectronics means electronic circuits and devices built at a very small scale (micrometers or nanometers).
They include transistors, sensors, microchips, etc. Normal microelectronics are made on rigid silicon wafers like
the chips used in smartphones and laptops. They are rigid and flat. Our human body is soft, curved, and flexible.
Rigid chips can’t directly fit on skin, clothes, or organs. That’s why scientists developed stretchable and wearable
microelectronics.
Stretchable electronics are made on flexible, elastic materials like rubbery polymers, silicones, or soft plastics.
They can bend, twist, and stretch like skin, but still work as circuits.
Wearable electronics are devices you can wear on the body like clothes, wristbands, or skin patches. They
continuously monitor health and the environment while being comfortable.

Stretchable and Wearable Microelectronics are advanced devices designed to be worn directly on the skin or
integrated into clothing, moving and stretching seamlessly with the human body. These devices do not use hard
and brittle silicon and metal materials. Instead, they use soft, biocompatible materials that are both conductive
(let electricity flow) and elastic (can stretch and return to their original shape).

Commonly used materials are:

a) Conductive polymers like PDMS – polydimethylsiloxane. These are special plastics that can conduct
electricity. They are naturally more flexible than metals.
b) Conductive inks with silver, graphene, or carbon nanotubes.
c) Tiny droplets of a non-toxic liquid metal alloy like gallium alloys are embedded inside a soft, stretchable
rubber-like material (an “elastomer” like silicone). When you stretch it, the droplets elongate and maintain an
electrical connection.
They are designed in special patterns so that they can be stretched easily. They use spring-like wires and
stretchable interconnects.

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Applications:

Stretchable electronics are required to create a perfect, unnoticeable interface between humans and machines.
This allows us to:

❖ They can be used to continuously monitor health. They can be used as a soft, skin-like patch that constantly
measures your heart rate (ECG), brain activity (EEG), temperature, and hydration, 24/7, without you even
feeling it.
❖ They can be used to create “Electronic Skin” (E-Skin). This could give prosthetic limbs a sense of touch,
pressure, and temperature, making them feel much more natural for the user. It could also give robots the
ability to feel and handle delicate objects.
❖ They can be used to develop Advanced Human-Machine Interfaces. This can control computers, drones,
or other devices with subtle movements or even just your thoughts, captured by sensors that fit like a
second skin.

Hence, stretchable and wearable electronics are about erasing the boundary between rigid machines and soft
biology, opening up a future where technology can truly become a part of us.

Applications of PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) in e-skin (electronic skin) applications.

E-skin is like artificial skin that can be used in robots or prosthetic limbs. It senses touch, pressure, or heat,
mimicking human skin. PDMS is used as the “skin” layer because it is soft, stretchable, and safe. PDMS is used
as a flexible substrate base on which tiny, rigid sensors and wires can be placed.

PDMS is mixed with conductive nanoparticles like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or metal electrodes (e.g., serpentine
copper) and cured into a thin micron-scale film which is transparent, conducting, comfortable, and sticks to real
skin without glue. When PDMS is encapsulated with piezoresistive materials, it acts as a flexible pressure sensor.
When pressed, resistance changes, signaling touch.

PDMS has a low modulus similar to skin (~1 MPa), so it feels natural. It can detect motions like finger bending
or heartbeat. It is used in wearables for health monitoring patches. It is used to monitor heart rate and also as a
sweat sensor that analyses sweat for health markers like glucose or lactate levels.

PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY

The word Photolithography means “writing with light”. In microelectronics, this process is used to draw a pattern
on a substrate like silicon or glass. Light is used to draw a pattern on a special light-sensitive chemical. This
pattern then acts as a stencil and defines where materials (like copper) should remain or be removed. It is like
stencilling at the micro/nano-scale.

Copper is an excellent electrical conductor. It is used in integrated circuits and MEMS for interconnects,
electrodes, and micro-coils. These applications need precisely patterned copper lines of microns wide.
Photolithography is used to deposit copper only in the desired micro-patterns.

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Working of Lithography for micro-patterned copper deposition:

The following steps are involved in the process:

Step 1: Preparation & Coating of substrate

In electronics circuits, a perfectly flat, clean disc of Silicon wafer is used as substrate. It is thoroughly cleaned.
Since electroplating is used to deposit copper, we need a conductive surface. So, a very thin “seed layer” of
conductive metal like copper is deposited over the entire wafer. This is usually done by sputtering or evaporation.
After that, the liquid photoresist is dripped onto the center of the wafer, which is then spun at high speed. This
process is called as spin-coating. It creates an extremely thin and perfectly uniform layer of photoresist over the
seed layer.
A commonly used photoresist is a mixture of two main chemicals: a light-sensitive polymer resin, Novolac resin
(Phenol-Formaldehyde resin) and a photoactive compound called DiazoNaphthoQuinone (DNQ). The Novolac
resin is a base polymer that is naturally soluble in an alkaline developer solution. The DNQ is mixed in as a
dissolution inhibitor. It prevents the resin from dissolving.

Step 2: Exposure
A glass plate with a pattern made of an opaque material (like chrome) is used as the photomask. It acts as the
master template with the desired wire pattern. Light can pass through the clear parts but is blocked by the opaque
parts. The photomask is placed just above the photoresist-coated wafer. The entire setup is then blasted with UV
light. The light passes through the clear parts of the mask (where we want copper patterns) and strikes the
photoresist below it.
Upon blasting with UV radiation, the DNQ undergoes a series of Wolff Rearrangement reactions, forming Indene
carboxylic acid. This new acid product is very soluble in the developer solution. So, the UV light effectively
converts insoluble DNQ to a clearly soluble acid.

Step 3: Development
The wafer is rinsed with a special chemical solution called a developer. This solution washes away only the UV
light-exposed parts of the photoresist. The unexposed photoresist part remains intact, insoluble in the developer
solution. Now, the wire pattern on the substrate is clearly exposed with the copper seed layer at the bottom.

DNQ (insoluble) → Indene carboxylic acid (soluble)

Step 4: Copper Deposition (Electroplating)

The UV exposed substrate is placed in a chemical bath rich in copper ions. The substrate's conductive seed layer
is connected to the negative terminal of a power supply. When the power is turned on, the positive copper ions
are attracted to the negative surface. Copper ions gets reduced and deposited only on the exposed seed layer. The
copper metal fills these molds perfectly.

Step 5: Lift-Off
Finally, a different solvent is used to wash away the rest of the photoresist stencil that was protecting the other
areas. Since the copper wires are now solid and stuck to the seed layer, they stay behind. The thin seed layer from
the areas between the wires is then etched away. Finally, a high-resolution pattern of microscopic copper wires
on the silicon wafer substrate, with a design same as photomask design is obtained. This is how the intricate
wiring inside a computer chip is made.

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Sensing Methods
Sensors are basically devices that “read” a physical stimulus, and then convert that reading into an electrical
signal output.
Physical Stimulus: Heat, light, sound, pressure etc.

Measurement process:
❖ Sensor input - the physical value or measurand (X) is observed by the sensor device
❖ Sensor output - The sensor generates a signal variable (S) output which is normally electrical
❖ Signal conditioning - The signal is transmitted and conditioned if needed (amplified, converted, filtered,
etc.)
❖ Display of measurement – the measurement is then displayed by the output device.

Optical sensors (Colorimetry):

Optical sensors are electronic components designed to detect and convert incident light rays into electrical
signals.
Example: Colorimetric Sensors
Principle:
❖ When a sample solution is interacted with a light of suitable wavelength, certain quantity of light is
absorbed by the analyte solution and it is observed by a sensor and transducer converts intensity of
absorbed light into electrical signal.
❖ The change in intensity at certain wavelength within visible (400–800mm) range can be determined using
instrument.

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Construction and working:

Absorption-based optical sensors can be colorimetric or spectroscopic in nature. Colorimetric sensors are an
important part of optical sensors that depends on the colour of the analyte with in the visible range (400-800nm).
❖ Its basic components include a light source, a wavelength selector, a photodetector and a read-out device.
❖ A block diagram of a typical instrumentation system employed colrimetry is shown in Fig.

❖ A monochromatic light is made to pass through analyte solution where certain quantity of light is
absorbed and it is a function of concentration of analyte.
❖ The change in the intensity of light is detected by photodetector (sensing).
❖ The light source generates an intense and stable radiation signal needed to probe an optical property of
the molecular recognition element in the sensor.
❖ The amount of absorbance is governed by Beer- lamberts law.
Procedure:
❖ Transfer the given copper sulphate solution (stock solution) to a burette and transfer 5, 10, 15, 20 cm3
of the solution into 50 cm3 volumetric flasks.
❖ Add 2 cm3 of ammonia solution to each of them and dilute up to the mark with ion exchange water.
Stopper the flasks and mix the solutions well.
❖ To the test solution given in a 50 cm3 measuring flask, add 2 cm3 of ammonia solution then dilute up to
the mark with ion exchange water and mix well.
❖ Prepare a blank solution by diluting 2 cm3 of ammonia solution in a 50 cm3 measuring flask up to the
mark with ion exchange water and mix well.
❖ After 10 minutes, measure the absorbance of the solutions against blank at 620 nm using a photoelectric
colorimeter and tabulate the readings.
❖ Draw a calibration curve by plotting absorbance against volume of copper sulphate solution.
❖ Using the calibration curve, find the volume of copper sulphate solution in the test solution and calculate
the amount of copper.

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 COURSE TITLE: Applied Chemistry for Emerging Electronics and Futuristic Devices (Electrical and Electronics Engineering Stream)

Applications: Colorimetric sensors exhibit many applications due to easy fabrication, quick detection, and high
sensitivity and selectivity. They find applications in the following,

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1. Colorimetric sensors exhibit promising potential application toward the detection of metallic cations, anions,
organic dyes, drugs, pesticides
2. Used to detect toxic pollutants
3. Used to estimate concentration of elements
4. Used in food & beverage quality control
5. Used in mineral oils & fuels industry
6. Used in medical & clinical tests

Potentiometric Sensor:
Working Principle:
❖ In this sensor change in potential during the chemical interaction between receptor and analyte is
measured using combination of an indicator electrode and a reference electrode.
❖ Commonly, platinum is used as an inert indicator electrode whereas saturated calomel electrode is used
as reference electrode.
❖ Indicator electrode is used to measure change in potential due to redox reaction occurring on the surface
of the electrode.
❖ Using an ion selective electrode as an indicator electrode, concentration of particular ion can be measured
with good selectivity. pH glass electrode is an example for this class of electrode.
❖ In potentiometric sensor, measurement is taken at zero current.

Procedure:
❖ Pipette out 25 cm3 of the given FAS solution into a clean beaker and add 1 test tube of dil H2SO4.
❖ Immerse a platinum electrode and a saturated calomel electrode and connect to a pH meter in milli volts
(mV) mode.
❖ Fill a clean burette with standard K2Cr2O7 solution. Commence the titration by adding large increments
(1 cm3) of K2Cr2O7 solution to FAS solution in the beaker. Stir the solution thoroughly and measure emf

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after every addition.

❖ At the equivalence point, there is a sudden increase in the emf. At this stage, add small increments of
K2Cr2O7 and note emf values.
❖ After equivalence point, there will be a slight increase in emf on continued addition of K2Cr2O7 solution.
❖ A graph of ΔE/ΔV (ordinate) against volume of K2Cr2O7 (abscissa) is plotted. From the graph volume
of K2Cr2O7 at equivalence point can be read.

Applications of electrochemical sensors:

1. Used in security and defence applications like detection of toxic gases, warfare agents etc.
2. Used in water analysis and environment monitoring
3. Used in diagnostic and health care applications like in situ monitoring of glucose serum uric acid, Ca2+, Fe2+,
Acetylcholine etc.
4. Used in the detection of hydrocarbon pollutants
5. Used for pH measurements 6. Used to detect pesticides

Conductometric Sensors:
Conductometric sensors are two electrode devices, measures the electrical conductivity in sample solution
between two electrodes.
Principle:
❖ The basic principle of conductometric detection involves a reaction that can change the concentration of
ionic species.
❖ This reaction leads to changes in electrical conductivity or current flow. In this method, two inert metal
electrodes are used.
❖ The ions or electrons produces during an electrochemical reaction may change the conductivity or

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resistivity of the solution.

Working:
❖ The conductivity is result of dissociation of an electrolyte into ions. The migration of the ions is induced
by an electrical field.
❖ When a potential difference is applied to the electrode, there is an electrical field within the electrolyte,
so the positively charged ions move towards cathode and negatively charged ions are move towards
anode.
❖ Thus, the current in the electrolyte is caused by the ion movement towards the electrodes where the ions
are neutralized and isolated as neutral atoms (or molecules).
❖ This chemical change is recognized by working electrode and transducers converts this chemical change
into electrical signal.
Procedure:
❖ Take 50 cm3 given acid mixture in a clean beaker. Dip the conductivity cell into it and connect it to the
conductivity bridge.
❖ Note down the specific conductance of this solution. Add standard sodium hydroxide solution from the
burette in increments of 0.5 cm3 and measure the corresponding specific conductance.
❖ Take readings when specific conductance increases significantly (i.e. after the neutralization of weak
acid).
❖ Plot a graph of specific conductance versus volume of NaOH. From this graph, find the neutralization
points for strong and weak acids and calculate their strength and amount.

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Applications:
1. Conductivity sensors are used to measure conductivity in aqueous solutions to determine the purity or
impurity of a liquid.
2. Conductometric sensors have been fabricated by applying imprinted polymers as receptors for
monitoring engine oil quality.
3. Conductometry is used to analyse ionic species and to monitor a chemical reaction by studying the
electrolytic conductivity of the reacting species or the resultant products. 4. The conductometric are used
determine analyte concentration and enzyme activity.

E-waste: Introduction, need of e-waste management, sources & effects of e-waste on environment and human
health, extraction of gold from e-waste from bioleaching method.
Introduction:
Today’s Electronic Gadgets are Tomorrow’s E- Waste. E-Waste is increasing at an alarming rate with each
passing day. Rapid changes and improvements in electronic gadgets means older ones are discarded and
become e-waste. As per an estimate, the average annual global E-waste volume is about 65-70 million tons per
year. Large amounts of energy and resources are wasted for production of new electronic equipments. E-waste
results in large landfills, rendering land useless for decades.

What is E-Waste?
Electronic Waste or E-Waste describes rejected electrical or electronic devices.
All items of electrical and electronic equipment and its parts that have been discarded by the user as waste
without the purpose of re-use or re-cycle is called Electronic Waste.

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Sources/Types of E-Waste:
Main sources/types of e-waste are,
1. Computer peripherals: Monitor, key board, mouse, mother board, laptops, CDs etc.
2. Telecommunication devices: Phones, cell phones, routers, pagers, fax machine etc.
3. Household appliances: TV, monitors, screens, fridges, washing machine, video players, ovens etc.
4. Industrial electronics: Sensors, medical devices, automobile devices etc.
5. Electrical devices: Switches, wires, bulbs etc.
6. Toys, leisure (electronic toys, models, sports equipment)
Causes of E-Waste:
The main causes of Electronic Waste are:
➢ Advancement in Technology.
➢ Changes in style fashion and status.
➢ End of their useful life.
➢ Not taking precautions while handling them.
Composition of e-waste:
E-waste is characterized by more than 1000 hazardous and non-hazardous materials.
1. E-waste contains about 65% of iron, steel and other metallic materials including costly metals like
platinum, gold, silver and toxic metals like lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium etc.
2. E-waste contains about 21% of polymeric non-biodegradable materials including poly vinyl chlorides
(PVCs), polychlorinated biphenyls and brominated flame retardant plastics.
3. E-waste contains about 11.8% of cathode ray tube and LCD screens and other materials like glass, wood,
plywood and ceramics.
Most of these products end up as landfills, rubbish dumps.
Recycling centres are trying to educate waste management officials, policy makers and residents.
Effects of E-Waste:
The effects of improper disposal of E-waste on the environment pose very real threats and dangers to the global
environment at large scale. Improper disposal of these wastes affect the soil, air and water components of the
environment.
Effects of E-waste on Environment:
➢ Effects of E-Waste on Air: Most common result of E-waste on air is through air pollution. Burning of
e-waste can release hydrocarbons within the atmosphere that pollutes the air.
➢ E-Waste Negatively Impacts Soil: E-waste can have a negative effect on the soil. As e-waste breaks
down, it releases toxic heavy metals. Such heavy metals include lead, arsenic, and cadmium. When these

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toxins penetrate the soil, they influence the plants and trees. Thus, these toxins can enter the human food
supply, which can lead to birth defects as well as a number of other health complications.
➢ Effects of E-Waste on Water: Heavy metals like mercury, lithium, lead present in electronics (found
in mobile phone and computer batteries), etc., when not disposed properly, these heavy metals penetrate
from soil to groundwater which then run to the surface as streams or small ponds of water.

Effects of E-waste on the Human Body:

Element Effects on human body

Lead Damage to central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems and kidney
damage. Affects brain development of children.

Chromium Asthmatic Bronchitis. DNA damage

Cadmium Toxic irreversible effects on human health. Accumulates in kidney and liver. Cause
neural damage.

Mercury Chronic damage to brain and respiratory system

Plastics including Burning produces dioxin. It causes reproductive and developmental problems;
PVC immune system damage, interfere with regulatory hormones.

Need for E-waste Management

The rapid advancement of technology has led to a significant increase in electronic waste (e-waste), making its
proper management a critical environmental necessity. Effective e-waste management helps in preventing further
environmental degradation and promotes sustainable development. Even small efforts by individuals in recycling
electronic waste can create a substantial positive impact in the long run. Therefore, responsible handling and
recycling of e-waste should be considered an essential practice. The major reasons highlighting the need for e-
waste management are discussed below.

1. Saving Landfill Space:

Proper e-waste management reduces the burden on landfills by ensuring that electronic components are
systematically separated. Recyclable materials are recovered and reused, while non-recyclable and
hazardous components are disposed of safely, minimizing their harmful impact on the environment.
2. Conservation of Natural Resources:
Recycling e-waste helps conserve valuable natural resources such as metals and rare elements. It also
reduces the need for mining and manufacturing new materials, thereby saving energy, lowering costs, and
preserving limited natural reserves.
3. Employment Generation:
E-waste recycling creates numerous job opportunities in collection, processing, refurbishing, and
recycling sectors. Increased employment contributes to financial stability, strengthens local communities,
and supports the overall economic growth of the country.

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4. Increased Affordability of Electronic Devices:

Through proper recycling and refurbishing, electronic devices can be made available at lower costs. This
improves accessibility for individuals who may not otherwise be able to afford new electronic products.
5. Safe Removal of Data:
Professional e-waste management ensures secure handling of electronic devices. Certified recycling
channels follow strict procedures to extract and permanently erase personal and sensitive data, preventing
data theft and misuse.
6. Environmental Protection:
Responsible e-waste management prevents toxic substances from polluting soil, water, and air. By
recycling e-waste, consumers contribute to protecting ecosystems and ensuring a healthy environment for
future generations.

EXTRACTION OF GOLD FROM E-WASTE

Gold metal has good electric conductivity and chemical stability, and hence it is used for making integrated
circuits of electronic devices, coating for contacts and connectors. Electronic industry uses over 300 tons of gold
each year. E-waste contains 10 times more excessive concentration of gold compared to gold ores. It
approximately contains 10–10,000 g of gold/ton, whereas the gold ore contains barely 0.5–13.5 g of gold/ton.

EXTRACTION OF GOLD FROM E-WASTE BY BIOLEACHING METHOD

Bioleaching is the process of dissolving metals from solid waste in the presence of acidic or oxidizing agents
using microorganisms like bacteria or fungi. It is also called biomining or microbial leaching.

In this process microbes break down metal compounds present in e-waste. They oxidize metals (like Cu, Fe, Au)
and convert them into soluble ions. Then gold is separated and recovered from the leach solution.

The following steps are involved in the process:

[Link] and Pretreatment of e-waste:

E-waste (mainly printed circuit boards – PCBs) is collected. PCBs are shredded or crushed into fine powder (1–
5 mm). Non-metal parts (plastic, glass) are removed by magnetic or density separation. Sometimes heated at low
temperature to remove resins.

[Link] of Leaching Medium:

Microorganisms are grown in a nutrient medium containing Fe²⁺ or S⁰ as energy source for bacteria. Acidic pH
of around 2.0, and temperature of 30–37 °C and aeration conditions as required for bacterial growth are
maintained.

[Link] Reaction:
Microorganisms attack the metallic layer of e-waste (Au, Cu, Fe, etc.) and convert metals into soluble ions. In the
first step iron is oxidized from Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺ by the bacteria Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans.

(bacteria)
2Fe²⁺ + 0.5O₂ + 2H⁺ 2Fe³⁺ + H₂O

Fe³⁺ is a strong oxidizing agent and helps dissolve other metals.

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Similarly, sulfur is oxidized by the bacteria, by Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans. It produces sulfuric acid which
dissolves base metals (Cu, Zn, Ni) from PCBs.

(bacteria)
S⁰ + 1.5O₂ + H₂O H₂SO₄

[Link] of Base Metals:

Now, base metals like copper are dissolved.

Cu + 2Fe³⁺ → Cu²⁺ + 2Fe²⁺

Once copper and other base metals are removed, gold becomes exposed on the surface.

5. Gold Solubilization:
The bacterium Chromobacterium violaceum produces natural cyanide (CN⁻), which forms a complex with gold
and leaches it to the solution.

4Au + 8CN⁻ + O₂ + 2H₂O → 4Au(CN)₂⁻ + 4OH⁻

This is similar to chemical cyanidation but produced biologically, not by adding toxic NaCN.

6. Recovery of Gold from Solution:

The gold is now present in solution as [Au(CN)₂]⁻ complex. Gold can be recovered by:

a) Cementation: by reducing with Zn dust.

2[Au(CN)₂]⁻ + Zn → 2Au + [Zn(CN)₄]²⁻

b) By electrodeposition: of gold from solution in an electrolytic cell passing electric current.

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