NUCLEIC ACIDS
These are polymeric macromolecules, or large biological molecules, essential for all known forms of life.
Nucleic acids, which include:
o DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
o RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Both are made from monomers known as nucleotides.
Each nucleotide has three components whether it is DNA or RNA.
1. A 5-carbon sugar can be of two types:
Deoxyribose sugar If the sugar is deoxyribose, the
polymer is DNA.
Ribose sugar: If the sugar is ribose, the polymer is
RNA).
2. A phosphate group
3. A nitrogenous base: (These are aromatic heterocyclic
compounds derived from either:
Purines: Which are adenine and guanine
Pyrimidines: which are thymine, cytosine and uracil.
Nucleoside:
When a nitrogenous base is N-glycosidically linked to sugar (either ribose in the case of RNA, or deoxyribose
in the case of DNA), it yields a nucleoside.
Nucleotides = Base + Sugar + Phosphate
Nucleosides = Base + Sugar
Nucleosides in RNA: (When the sugar component is ribose, then the product formed is ribonucleoside):
o The nucleoside adenosine (abbreviation: A) is formed in this way from adenine and ribose.
o Guanosine (G) is formed from guanine and ribose,
o Uridine (U) is formed from uracil and ribose
o Cytidine (C) is formed from ribose and cytosine.
Nucleoside in DNA:(When the sugar component is 2-deoxyribose, the product is a deoxyribonucleoside e. g:
o 2-deoxyadenosine (dA).
o 2-Deoxythymidine (dT)
o 2-Deoxyguanidine
o 2-deoxycytidine
DNA:
Deoxyribonucleic acids (DNAs) are polymers consisting of nucleoside phosphate components that are linked
by phosphoric acid diester bonds.
Consisting of
o Sugar which is deoxyribose
o Nitrogenous bases: which are purine and pyrimidine; thymine, cytosine, adenine, and guanine,
o Phosphate group
The amounts of adenine and thymine are almost equal in every type of DNA. The same applies to guanine
and cytosine.
The model of DNA structure formulated explains, these constant base ratios: Intact DNA consists of two
polydeoxynucleotide molecules (“strands”).
Each base in one strand is linked to a complementary base in the other strand by H-bonds.
o Adenine is complementary to thymine, and guanine is complementary to cytosine. One purine base and
one pyrimidine base are thus involved in each base pair.
o There is hydrogen bonding between two different nitrogenous bases. Two linear and therefore highly
stable bonds can thus be formed in A–T pairs, and three in G–C pairs. Base pairings of this type are only
possible, however, when the polarity of the two strands differs—i. e., when they run in opposite directions.
o In addition, the two strands have to be intertwined to form a double helix.
o Due to steric hindrance by the 2-OH groups of the ribose residues, RNA is unable to form a double helix.
The structure of RNA is therefore less regular than that of DNA.
o In diagram 2, the deoxyribose–phosphate “backbone” is shown as a ribbon. The bases (indicated by lines)
are located on the inside of the double helix. This area of DNA is therefore a polar. By contrast, the
molecule’s surface is polar and negatively charged, due to the sugar and phosphate residues in the
backbone.
o Along the whole length of the DNA molecule, there are two depressions—referred to as the “minor
groove” and the “major groove”—that lie between the strands.
RNA:
Ribonucleic acids (RNAs) are polymers consisting of nucleoside phosphate components that are linked by
phosphoric acid diester bonds.
Consisting of
o Sugar which is ribose
o Nitrogenous bases: which are uracil, cytosine, adenine, and guanine,
o Phosphate group
RNAs are involved in all the individual steps of gene expression and protein biosynthesis.
In contrast to DNA, RNAs are single stranded molecules, do not form extended double helices. In RNAs, the
base pairs usually only extend over a few residues. They have a finger shape or clover-leaf shape in two-
dimensional representations. Large RNAs such as ribosomal 16S rRNA (center) contain numerous “stem and
loop” regions of this type. These sections are again folded three-dimensionally—i. e., like proteins, RNAs
have a tertiary structure. However, tertiary structures are only known of small RNAs, mainly tRNAs.
Cellular RNAs vary widely in their size, structure, and lifespan.
RNA - 3 (or 4) types:
o Ribosomal RNA
o Messenger RNA
o Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA:
Cellular RNAs vary widely in their size, structure, and lifespan. The great majority of them are ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), which in several forms is a structural and functional component of ribosomes.
Ribosomal RNA is produced from DNA by transcription in the nucleolus, and it is processed there and
assembled with proteins to form ribosome subunits.
The bacterial 16S-RNA with 1542 nucleotides, is a component of the small ribosomes subunit, while the
much smaller 5S-RNA is located in the large subunit.
Messenger RNA:
Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) transfer genetic information from the cell nucleus to the cytoplasm.
Since mRNAs
They have to be read codon by codon in the ribosome, they must not form a stable tertiary
structure.
Due to the varying amounts of information that they carry, the lengths of mRNAs also vary widely.
Their lifespan is usually short, as they are quickly broken down after translation
Transfer RNA
The transfer RNAs (tRNAs) function during translation as links between the nucleic acids and proteins.
They are small RNA molecules consisting of 70–90 nucleotides, which “recognize” specific mRNA
codons with their anticodons through base pairing.
At the same time, at their 3’ end they carry the amino acid that is assigned to the relevant mRNA codon
according to the genetic code.
Pharmaceutical and biological importance of nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses.
Nucleic acids were discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869 from the nuclei of pus cells.
Nuclein was shown to have acidic properties, hence it became called nucleic acid
Together with proteins, nucleic acids are the most important biological macromolecules; each is found in
abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting and expressing genetic
information.
Nucleic acids are large molecules that carry tons of small details: all the genetic information. Nucleic acids
are found in every living thing — plants, animals, bacteria, viruses, fungi — that uses and converts energy.
Nucleic acids direct synthesis of proteins including enzymes.
Mutations are essential for evolution of new varieties and species.
Strings of nucleotides strung together in a specific sequence are the mechanism for storing and transmitting
hereditary, OR genetic, information via protein synthesis.
Experimental studies of nucleic acids constitute a major part of modern biological and medical research, and
form a foundation for forensic science, as well as the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries.
Cancer research involves extensive studies of nucleic acids.
Diseases like Gout and Orotic-aciduria are inborn errors of purine and pyrimidine metabolism respectively.
It is possible to find out defective genes leading to serious diseases even before birth.
It is possible to synthesize genes and incorporate into genome of selected host cells.
Genomic maps and libraries have been prepared.
DNA from blood, seminal fluid can be analyzed by which parentage and involvement of crimes like murder
or raps can be detected with great precision. This is called DNA finger-printing.
Gene therapy for certain genetic diseases in human beings is being studied.
In Eukaryotic cells, DNA occurs in combination with proteins called nucleoproteins chiefly histones of several
types. Histones are small, highly basic proteins (known amino acid sequence).
Nuclear material scattered in cytoplasm, nucleoproteins found in cytoplasm associated particularly with
ribosome where RNA is ultimately concerned with protein synthesis.
Nucleotide Function as Energetic Intermediates, Adenine Enzyme Cofactors and Regulatory Molecules.