Process Design Principles-1

(CHE F314)
by
Prof. Manas Ranjan Behera & Prof. Sampatrao Dagu Manjare

Department of Chemical Engineering

Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani – Goa
 Introduction
❑India’s Chemical Industry
• More than 80,000 commercial products

• Employment: Employs over 2 million people.

• Classified into bulk chemicals, specialty chemicals,

agrochemicals, petrochemicals, polymers, and fertilizers.

• It ranks 6th largest in the world and 3rd in Asia

• It contribute 7% of India’s gross domestic product

• It is anticipated to grow to US$ 1 trillion by 2040.

• The demand for chemicals is expected to expand by

9% per annum by 2025.

 Introduction
❑ Importance
• Efficient and effective way to processes to convert
or separate raw materials into desired products
• Its importance in optimizing production,
ensuring safety, and minimizing environmental impact.

Raw material
(Crude oil, Raw Process Desired product
biomass, mineral
ores…)
 Introduction
❑ Objectives:
▪ To create new material or enhance the value of existing material
▪ To convert a waste byproduct to valuable product
▪ To find a new economical way to produce existing product
▪ To explore the new technology
❑ Applications
▪ Petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, food processing, and environmental engineering
❑ What is process?
▪ It is designed to perform a specific function
▪ Heating a material from initial to final temperature
▪ It will be in terms of unit operation or unit process
 Introduction
❑ What is unit operation and unit process?
▪ The process which involves physical changes are known as unit operation
▪ The process which involves chemical changes are known as unit process
❑ Unit operation
Fluid flow process Heat transfer operations Mass transfer operations Mechanical operation

Solid fluidization Conduction Evaporation Size reduction

Fluids transportation Convection Distillation Mixing

Radiation Absorption screening

Drying
 Introduction
• Examples:
(a) Sugar Manufacture:
• Harvesting Sugar Cane → Cleaning and Chopping → Juice Extraction → Juice Clarification→
Crystallization → Sugar crystalization
• Harvesting Sugar Cane → Cleaning and Chopping → Juice Extraction → Juice Clarification→
Fermentation (Yeast) → Distillation → Dehydration → Final Processing
(b) Pharmaceutical Manufacture:
• Formulation of chemicals, mixing, granulation → drying of granules→ screening → pressing tablet
→ packaging.
(c) Salt Manufacture:

Brine transportation → evaporation → crystallization →drying → screening → conveying →

packaging.
 Unit Process
❑ Unit process
Biomass (Organic Material)
|

Gasifier
(Heat + Limited Oxygen)
|

Syngas (H2, CO, CO2)

|

Water-Gas Shift Reactor

(CO + H2O → CO2 + H2)
|

Hydrogen (H2) + CO2

 Types of process
Characteristic Batch Process Continuous Process
Continuous, non-stop flow of materials through the
Discrete, separate processing of materials in
Operation Mode process for 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, for nearly
individual batches.
a year
Small to medium Large
Scalability

Highly adaptable to different products and Less adaptable to frequent changes in products or
Flexibility
formulations. formulations.
Easier to monitor and control on a per-batch basis. Requires sophisticated real-time monitoring and
Control
control systems.
Frequent, due to cleaning and preparation between Minimal, primarily during maintenance or
Downtime
batches. adjustments. Hence, less energy requirement
• Suitable for drug requiring precise formulation • Ideal for large scale production of consistent,
and small-scale production high volume products (e.g. Petrochemicals)
• Ideal for chemicals with variability and • Suitable for continuous production process (e.g.
customization (e.g. cosmetic industry) Paper and Pulp)
Applications
• Used for high value, low volume food products • Operations require uniform quality (e.g. Steel
manufacturing)
• For high volume, low cost food products
 What is Design?
▪ It refers to the systematic approach of creating and optimizing processes to convert raw materials into
desired products efficiently, safely, and cost-effectively.

▪ It is not a scientific solution, but to achieve the goal economically

▪ Improved technical performance through efficient design involves additional costs.

▪ Industrial process design must balance enhanced performance and increased expenses.

▪ Aim for an optimum design that achieves this balance effectively.

❑ Optimum Design

▪ Balance improved performance with increased cost.

▪ Consider qualitative factors (heuristics).

▪ Utilize quantitative factors (mathematical optimization).

 What is Design?
Example: Optimum design for Hydrogen Production
Objective: Produce 5000 Nm³/hr of hydrogen for a refinery’s hydro processing unit.
1. Under-Design (Left Side of Curve)
Choice: Use an older, small-capacity steam methane reformer (SMR) without waste-heat recovery.
Result: Lower capital cost.
Insufficient hydrogen output — refinery can’t meet production demands.
Higher fuel use per unit hydrogen → poor efficiency, higher operating cost in long term.
May fail to meet product purity or environmental limits (CO₂ emissions).
Key Point: Performance is too low to justify even the low cost.
2. Optimum Design (Bottom of Curve)
Choice: Modern SMR with waste-heat recovery boiler + steam export to other plant units.
Result: Meets hydrogen demand with good efficiency.
Reforming reaction ( endothermic ) :
Balanced capital investment vs. operating cost.
Ni catalyst ,700 −1000
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ → CO+3H 2
0

Byproduct steam offsets plant utility cost. CH 4 +H 2 O

Water – Gas Shift reaction ( exothermic ) :
CO₂ emissions reduced compared to old SMR.
CO+H 2 O → CO 2 + H 2
Key Point: Best balance of cost, performance, and energy integration.
 What is Design?
3. Over-Design (Right Side of Curve)
Choice: Fully green hydrogen via large-scale electrolysis with 100% renewable power backup + advanced
purification to ultrapure levels (99.999%).
Result: Very high efficiency and zero direct CO₂ emissions.
Produces hydrogen far purer than required for hydro processing (wasted capability).
Huge capital cost for electrolyzers + renewable
infrastructure.
Payback period becomes uneconomical for
refinery use.
Key Point: Performance exceeds what is needed,
but extra gains cost far more than their value.
 Qualitative Considerations
• Soundness of the scientific concept

• Fire and safety risk

• Feasibility of practical implementation-compatibility with existing plant/standards; spatial limitation

• Requirement of auxiliary facilities: Power, Water, Steam, Compressed air etc. Transport
(Road/Rail/Waterway)

• Waste disposal/Environmental considerations

• Ease of operation, maintenance, erection, commissioning

• Availability of resource: Technology, material, manpower and skill

• Project completion time available

• Design with proven implementation and performance are preferred

• Project finance: Availability of capital

 Quantitative Considerations: Optimization
❑ What is optimization?
• It is the use of specific methods to determine the most cost-effective and efficient solution to a problem or design
for a process subject to constraints.

• Typical problems in chemical engineering process design or plant operation have many (possibly an infinite
number) solutions. Optimization is concerned with selecting the best among the entire set by efficient quantitative
methods.

• This technique is one of the major quantitative tools in industrial decision making.

❑ Why optimization?
• It is a mathematical technique to find out the best possible solution.

• To get largest production, the greatest profit, the minimum cost, and the least energy usage

• To reduced maintenance costs, less equipment wear, and better staff utilization.
 Optimization
❑ The design or decision variables

❑ The objective function

❑ The constraints

❑ The process model

❑ The design or decision variables

• The design or decision variables are varied during optimization process in order to achieve the optimization goal.

• Example: Reactor temperature, Feed rate, No. of plates in a distillation column, Reflux ratio, Batch time, Reactor
yield, etc.

• A practical problem may involve many design variables.

• Some of these may be highly sensitive and heavily influence the process being optimized. Choose these as design
variables and others (not so sensitive variables) may be kept constant.

( If all the design variables are fixed, there is no scope for optimization. Thus one or more variables must be relaxed
so that the system becomes an underdetermined system which has, at least in principle, infinite number of solutions.)
 Optimization: The process model
• A process model is a mathematical description of a physical/engineering process.

• Help predict system behavior without testing the real system (saves cost, time, risk).

• It links decision variables (inputs like velocity, pressure, geometry, boundary conditions) to outputs (flow rate,
drag, heat transfer, pressure drop).

• It allows us to study how changes in variables influence the objective function (e.g., minimizing energy loss,
maximizing heat transfer).

• Example: In CFD, Navier–Stokes + continuity equations act as a theoretical process model to simulate fluid flow.
❑ Classification of Process Models
➢ Theoretical (First-Principle) Models
• Based on physical/chemical laws.
• Examples: Navier–Stokes in CFD, energy balance equations, reaction kinetics.
➢ Empirical (Data-Based) Models
• Developed from experimental data.
• Examples: Regression models, neural networks, correlation-based equations.
 Optimization: The objective function
• Defines the goal of optimization (to minimize or maximize).

• It may be technical or economic

• Examples of economic objectives: maximize profits, minimize costs of production.

• Examples of technical objectives: maximize reactor yield, minimize size of an equipment, minimize error during

curve fitting, minimize environmental impact, etc.

• Expressed in terms of decision variables predicted by the process model.

• Technical objectives are ultimately related to economics.

• Process models (e.g., CFD using Navier–Stokes) provide outputs (pressure, velocity, heat transfer) which are used
in the objective function.

• Examples:

➢ Minimize pressure drop in CFD pipe flow.

➢ Minimize energy consumption in a heat exchanger model.

 Optimization: The constraints
• The constraints represent some additional functional relationships among the decision variables and process
parameters.

• The constraints originate as decision variables must satisfy certain physical phenomenon and certain resource
limitations.

• Examples:

• Variable bounds: 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

▪ Equality constraint: Sum of mole fractions should be unity

• Component balance equation in distillation column, blending process

▪ Inequality constraints:

• In packed bed reactor, temperature should be less than catalyst deactivation temperature

• Stress developed anywhere in a component should be less than maximum allowable stress

• Acidic condition: pH < 7

 Optimization: Problem Statement
• Given a design vector: x = [x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 ] The optimization problem is to:
Find values of the decision variables that minimize or maximize the
• An objective function, f(x) objective function while satisfying the constraints.

• A set of inequality constraints , g(x) ≥ 0

• A set of equality constraints, h(x) = 0

• The general problem statement:

min f (x) max f (x)

subject to g (x) ≥ 0 subject to g (x) ≥ 0

h(x) = 0 h(x) = 0

LB ≤ x ≤ UB LB ≤ x ≤ UB
 Optimization: Classification
•Feasible Region
•Defined by equality constraints, inequality constraints, and variable bounds
•Feasible Solution
•Any point in the feasible region that satisfies all constraints and bounds
•Optimal Solutions
•Local Optimum: Feasible solution that minimizes or maximizes the objective function within its local region
•Global Optimum: The best solution overall, possibly among several local optima
•Types of Problems
•Linear Programming (LP): Objective function and constraints are linear
•Nonlinear Programming (NLP): Objective or any constraint is nonlinear
 Optimization: Example
• A detergent manufacturer produces two powder detergents: Premium (A) and Economy (B). Three raw materials
are used: surfactant, builder, and enzyme. The tons of each raw material needed to produce 1 ton of each detergent
are: Raw material (tons per ton Premium A Economy B
of product)
Surfactant 2 1
Builder 1 1
Enzyme 1 0

• Daily availability of raw materials is limited to 3000 tons of surfactant, 2400 tons of builder, and 1000 tons of
enzyme. Profit per ton is $60 for Premium A and $40 for Economy B. Determine the daily production quantities of
A and B that maximize total profit.
Answer: Step 1: Optimization problem statement
Decision variables: 𝑥 : tons of Premium A produced per day; 𝑦: tons of Economy B produced per day
Objective (maximize profit): max 𝑍 = 60𝑥 + 40𝑦
• Resource constraints
• Surfactant: 2x+y ≤ 3000 x≥ 0, y≥ 0
• Builder: x + y ≤ 2400
• Enzyme: x ≤ 1000 ;
 Optimization: Example
Step 2: Treat each inequality as an equation (boundary lines)
From (1): 2𝑥+𝑦=3000; (2): 𝑥+𝑦=2400; (3) 𝑥=1000; From non-negativity: 𝑥=0, 𝑦=0.
These lines form the boundaries of the feasible polygon.
Step 3: Plot the lines on a graph
For 2𝑥+𝑦=3000 ; If 𝑥=0, then 𝑦=[Link] 𝑦=0, then 𝑥=1500.→ Line from (0,3000) to (1500,0).
For 𝑥+𝑦=2400 :If 𝑥=0, then 𝑦=[Link] 𝑦=0, then 𝑥=2400.→ Line from (0,2400) to (2400,0).
For 𝑥=1000: Vertical line at 𝑥=1000. Non-negativity: only the first quadrant (𝑥,𝑦≥0) is allowed.
Step 4: Identify the feasible region
The feasible region is the polygon (closed shape) formed by
overlapping all inequalities:
2𝑥+𝑦 ≤3000: below that line.
𝑥+𝑦≤2400: below that line.
𝑥≤1000: to the left of that vertical line.
𝑥,𝑦≥0: first quadrant.

The Corner Point (Graphical) Method

 Optimization: Example
Step 5: Find the corner points (extreme points of the polygon)
To maximize/minimize an LP objective, the optimum always lies at a corner point (vertex) of the feasible region.
Take intersections of pairs of boundary lines. Check feasibility (whether that point satisfies all inequalities).Keep only
the feasible ones.
Thus feasible corners: (0,0),(0,2400),(600,1800),(1000,1000),(1000,0).
Step 6: Evaluate the objective function at each corner
𝑍=60𝑥+40𝑦
(0,0): 𝑍=0
(0,2400): 𝑍=96,000
(600,1800): 𝑍=108,000
(1000,1000): 𝑍=100,000
(1000,0): 𝑍=60,000
Step 7: Choose the maximum
The maximum profit is at (600,1800) with
Z=108,000
Produce 600 tons of A and 1800 tons of B per day for a maximum profit of $108,000.
 Role of design codes and standards in design
1. Compatibility with the rest of the facility
✓ New equipment must fit and work with the existing system.
✓ Example: A new pump should connect easily with existing pipelines without redesign.
2. Reliability of equipment:
✓ Codes include safety factors and limits to make sure equipment works for years without failing.
✓ Example: ASME tells engineers how thick a boiler wall should be so it doesn’t burst.
3. Interchangeability of parts and spares
✓ If all equipment follows the same standard, spares can be easily replaced.
✓ Example: Standardized valves and flanges (API standards) can be swapped between manufacturers.
4. Use of standard materials
✓ Standards recommend commonly available and tested materials.
✓ This avoids delays and high costs of rare materials.
✓ Example: ASME lists approved steels for pressure vessels.
 Role of design codes and standards in design
5. Faster and reliable design
✓ Instead of inventing formulas every time, engineers use ready-made rules from codes.
✓ Saves time and ensures proven safe designs.
✓ Example: API gives formulas to design safe oil storage tanks.
6. Safety and legal compliance
✓ Many governments make some codes mandatory.
✓ Following them avoids accidents, legal issues, and penalties.
✓ Example: A pressure vessel without ASME certification cannot be operated in many countries.
7. Quality assurance
✓ Codes also specify how to test and inspect equipment.
✓ Example: Weld inspections and hydro-tests are required before using a boiler.
8. Global standardization
✓ International standards (like ISO) allow equipment to be traded and used worldwide.
✓ Example: A pump built in India using API standards can be installed in the USA without problems.
 Role of design codes and standards in design
✓ Codes are like Rulebooks that make designs safe, reliable, and legal.
✓ They save time, ensure compatibility, and reduce costs.
✓ Without them → risk of accidents, delays, and failures.
• Mechanical Engineering:
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME): ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, which
provides rules for the design, fabrication, and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels.
• ISO Standards (International Organization for Standardization): Various ISO standards for
machinery design, safety, and performance.
• Chemical Engineering:
• American Petroleum Institute (API) Standards: Standards for the design, construction, and operation of
oil and gas facilities.
• American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) Standards: Guidelines for process safety and
chemical plant design.
 Block Flow Diagrams (BFDs)
• They provides an overview of a plant.
• They simplify complex processes into a series of blocks representing a major process step, unit, or equipment, and
arrows indicate the flow of material or energy.
• Characteristics:
• Simplified Representation: It use blocks to represent major process units or steps, with arrows showing the flow
of materials or energy between them. It may also show a few of the more important operating parameters, such as
flow rates and temperature.
• Ease of Understanding: They are useful for conveying the general layout and flow of a process to stakeholders
who need a broad overview without delving into technical details.
• Applications:
• Initial Design: Used in the early stages of design
to outline the major components and their interactions.
• Communication: Communicating the process to
non-engineering stakeholders, such as management.
• Process Analysis: Useful for analyzing and
understanding the general flow and interaction
Block flow diagram for the vinyl-chloride process.
of processes.
 Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)
• It provide a more detailed view of the process, including the flow of materials and energy, as well as the
relationships between different equipment and subprocesses.
• Characteristics:
• Detailed Representation: PFDs include detailed information about each unit operation, such as pumps, reactors,
heat exchangers, and separators.
• Inclusion of Equipment and Instruments: They depict specific equipment, control valves, instrumentation, and
sometimes piping details.
• Flows and Conditions: PFDs show the flow of materials, energy inputs and outputs, and process conditions in
more detail than BFDs.
• Applications:
• Design and Engineering: Used during the detailed design phase to ensure that all components and
processes are accurately represented and interrelated.
• Operational Guidance: Provides essential information for operating the plant
• Safety and Compliance: Helps in assessing safety measures and regulatory compliance.
Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)

Process flow diagram for the vinyl-chloride process.

 Process Flow Diagrams (PFDs)
PFDs includes • PFDs generally do not include:
• Process piping • Pipe classes or piping line numbers
• Major equipment items • Process control instrumentation (sensors and final
• Control valves and other major valves elements)
• Connections with other systems • Minor bypass lines
• Major bypass and recirculation streams • Isolation and shutoff valves
• Operational data (temperature, pressure, • Maintenance vents and drains
mass flow rate, density, etc.), often by • Relief and safety valves
stream references to a mass balance.
• Flanges
• Process stream names
 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) is a schematic illustration of the functional relationship of
piping, instrumentation, and system equipment components.
This shows all of the piping, including the physical sequence of branches, reducers, valves, and the equipment.
This also shows the instrumentation and control, as well as the control interlocks.
A typical P&ID should include:
• Instrumentation and designations
• Process equipment with names and numbers
• All valves and their identifications
• Process piping, sizes and identification
• Miscellaneousdvents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, etc.
• Permanent start-up and flushing lines
• Flow directions
• Interconnections’ references
• Control inputs and outputs, interlocks
• Interfaces for class changes
• Annunciation inputs
• Vendor and contractor interfaces
• Intended physical sequence of the equipment
 Plot Plan & Isometric Drawing
• The plant (and/or equipment) layout in the Plot Plan is decided by referring to the PFD.
• The designer knows the equipment required from the PFD and decides the plant layout, usually placing the
equipment in a natural sequence of flow of material.
• Other Considerations in Layout
• Besides process flow, many practical factors influence where equipment is placed:
• Terrain elevations → Ensure gravity flow where needed, prevent flooding in low-lying areas.
• Wind direction → Hazardous units are placed downwind from control rooms and offices.
• Ease of movement → Operators and maintenance staff need safe and quick access to equipment.
• Emergency actions & evacuation plans → Clear escape routes must be available.
• Proximity of existing plants or facilities → To avoid interference and ensure safety clearances.
• Drainage location → Equipment should be arranged so that spills, wash water, or rain can be properly drained.
• Transport and access → Large equipment must be installable and replaceable by cranes or trailers.
• Fire safety → Firefighting equipment, spacing between flammable units, and access for fire trucks are all
considered.
 Plot Plan & Isometric Drawing
• Role of Plot Plan in Civil and Construction Work
✓ The Plot Plan is drawn to scale, showing the exact positions of all equipment, buildings, and structures.
✓ Since it is to scale, it can be used to measure distances directly.
✓ Civil engineers and contractors use it as a vital reference for foundation work, pipe racks, cable trenches, and
access roads.
• Uses of the Plot Plan
✓ Estimating lengths: Preliminary lengths of piping and electrical cables are calculated.
✓ Verification of access: Checks whether there is enough space for operators to move, maintain, or replace
equipment.
✓ Construction planning: Decides crane paths, equipment erection sequence, and material storage.
The Plot Plan is a bridge between process design (PFD) and civil/structural design. It ensures equipment is arranged
logically for process efficiency and safely for construction, operation, and maintenance.
Isometric drawing:
It is a 2D drawing made to look 3D by using isometric projection →
usually drawn with horizontal lines at 30° angles and vertical lines straight up.
Shows spatial location and routing details of every physical item in the plant
 Complete design of process plant
Deliverable :

• Process selection

• Equipment selection

• Process design by considering qualitative and quantitative consideration

• PFD/P&ID

• Overall plot plan

• Followed by detail engineering by referring to codes and standards

 Pilot Plant
▪ A pilot plant is a small industrial system, which is operated to generate information about the behavior of the
system for use in design of larger facilities.

▪ Pilot plant is a relative term in the sense that plants are typically smaller than full-scale production plants, but are
built in a range of sizes.

▪ Some pilot plants are built in laboratories using stock lab equipment, while others require substantial engineering
efforts, cost millions of dollars, and are custom-assembled and fabricated from process equipment, instrumentation
and piping.

▪ They can also be used to train personnel for a full-scale plant.

 Success Rates
▪ Chances of Commercialization of new project

• at research stage – 1 to 3 %

• at development stage – 10 to 25 %

• at pilot plant stage – 40 to 60 %

▪ Success rates for process modifications are higher.

▪ Evaluation is one of the most significant components of any design methodology.

36