What are the functions of protective relays
To detect the fault and initiate the operation of the circuit breaker to
isolate the defective element from the rest of the system, thereby
protecting the system from damages consequent to the fault.
Give the consequences of short circuit.
Whenever a short-circuit occurs, the current flowing through the coil
increases to an enormous value. If protective relays are present , a
heavy current also flows through the relay coil, causing it to operate
by closing its [Link] trip circuit is then closed , the circuit
breaker opens and the fault is isolated from the rest of the system.
Also, a low voltage may be created which may damage systems
connected to the supply.
Define protected zone.
Are those which are directly protected by a protective system such as
relays, fuses or [Link] a fault occurring in a zone can be
immediately detected and or isolated by a protection scheme
dedicated to that particular zone.
What are unit system and non unit system?
A unit protective system is one in which only faults occurring within
its protected zone are [Link] occurring elsewhere in the
system have no influence on the operation of a unit system.A non
unit system is a protective system which is activated even when the
faults are external to its protected zone.
What is primary protection?
Is the protection in which the fault occurring in a line will be cleared
by its own relay and circuit [Link] serves as the first line of
defence.
What is back up protection?
Is the second line of defence , which operates if the primary
protection fails to activate within a definite time delay.
Name the different kinds of over current relays.
Induction type non-directional over current relay,Induction type
directional over current relay & current differential relay.
Define energizing quantity.
It refers to the current or voltage which is used to activate the relay
into operation.
Define operating time of a relay.
It is defined as the time period extended from the occurrence of the
fault through the relay detecting the fault to the operation of the
relay.
Define resetting time of a relay.
It is defined as the time taken by the relay from the instant of isolating
the fault to the moment when the fault is removed and the relay can
be reset.
What are over and under current relays?
Overcurrent relays are those that operate when the current in a line
exceeds a predetermined value. (eg: Induction type non-
directional/directional overcurrent relay, differential overcurrent
relay)whereas undercurrent relays are those which operate whenever
the current in a circuit/line drops below a predetermined value.(eg:
differential over-voltage relay)
Mention any two applications of differential relay.
Protection of generator & generator transformer unit; protection of
large motors and busbars .
What is biased differential bus zone reduction?
The biased beam relay is designed to respond to the differential
current in terms of its fractional relation to the current flowing
through the protected zone. It is essentially an over-current balanced
beam relay type with an additional restraining coil. The restraining
coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the operating
force.
What is the need of relay coordination?
The operation of a relay should be fast and selective, ie, it should
isolate the fault in the shortest possible time causing minimum
disturbance to the system. Also, if a relay fails to operate, there
should be sufficiently quick backup protection so that the rest of the
system is protected. By coordinating relays, faults can always be
isolated quickly without serious disturbance to the rest of the system.
Mention the short comings of Merz Price scheme of protection
applied to a power transformer.
In a power transformer, currents in the primary and secondary are to
be compared. As these two currents are usually different, the use of
identical transformers will give differential current, and operate the
relay under no-load condition. Also, there is usually a phase
difference between the primary and secondary currents of three
phase transformers. Even CT’s of proper turn-ratio are used, the
differential current may flow through the relay under normal
condition.
What are the various faults to which a turbo alternator is likely
to be subjected?
Failure of steam supply; failure of speed; overcurrent; over voltage;
unbalanced loading; stator winding fault .
What is an under frequency relay?
An under frequency relay is one which operates when the frequency
of the system (usually an alternator or transformer) falls below a
certain value.
Define the term pilot with reference to power line protection.
Pilot wires refers to the wires that connect the CT’s placed at the ends
of a power transmission line as part of its protection scheme. The
resistance of the pilot wires is usually less than 500 ohms.
Mention any two disadvantage of carrier current scheme for
transmission line only.
The program time (ie, the time taken by the carrier to reach the other
end-upto .1% mile); the response time of band pass filter;
capacitance phase-shift of the transmission line .
What are the features of directional relay?
High speed operation; high sensitivity; ability to operate at low
voltages; adequate short-time thermal ratio; burden must not be
excessive.
What are the causes of over speed and how alternators are
protected from it? Sudden loss of all or major part of the load
causes over-speeding in alternators.
Modern alternators are provided with mechanical centrifugal devices
mounted on their driving shafts to trip the main valve of the prime
mover when a dangerous over-speed occurs.
What are the main types of stator winding faults?
Fault between phase and ground; fault between phases and inter-
turn fault involving turns of the same phase winding.
Give the limitations of Merz Price protection.
Since neutral earthing resistances are often used to protect circuit
from earth-fault currents, it becomes impossible to protect the whole
of a star-connected alternator. If an earth-fault occurs near the
neutral point, the voltage may be insufficient to operate the relay.
Also it is extremely difficult to find two identical CT’s. In addition to
this, there always an inherent phase difference between the primary
and the secondary quantities and a possibility of current through the
relay even when there is no fault.
What are the uses of Buchholz’s relay?
Bucholz relay is used to give an alarm in case of incipient( slow-
developing) faults in the transformer and to connect the transformer
from the supply in the event of severe internal faults. It is usually used
in oil immersion transformers with a rating over 750KVA.
What are the types of graded used in line of radial relay feeder?
Definite time relay and inverse-definite time relay.
What are the various faults that would affect an alternator?
Stator faults
1, Phase to phase faults 2, Phase to earth faults 3, Inter turn faults
(b)
1, Earth faults
2, Fault between turns
3, Loss of excitation due to fuel failure
1, Over speed
2, Loss of drive
3, Vacuum failure resulting in condenser pressure rise, resulting in
shattering of the turbine low pressure casing
1, Fault on lines
2, Fault on busbars
Why neutral resistor is added between neutral and earth of an
alternator?
In order to limit the flow of current through neutral and earth a
resistor is introduced between them.
What is the backup protection available for an alternator?
Overcurrent and earth fault protection is the backup protections.
What are faults associated with an alternator?
External fault or through fault
Internal fault
1, Short circuit in transformer winding and connection 2, Incipient or
slow developing faults
What are the main safety devices available with transformer?
Oil level guage, sudden pressure delay, oil temperature indicator,
winding temperature indicator .
What are the limitations of Buchholz relay?
Only fault below the oil level are detected.
Mercury switch setting should be very accurate, otherwise even for
vibration, there can be a false operation.
The relay is of slow operating type, which is unsatisfactory.
What are the problems arising in differential protection in power
transformer and how are they overcome?
Difference in lengths of pilot wires on either sides of the relay. This is
overcome by connecting adjustable resistors to pilot wires to get
equipotential points on the pilot wires.
Difference in CT ratio error difference at high values of short circuit
currents that makes the relay to operate even for external or through
faults. This is overcome by introducing bias coil.
Tap changing alters the ratio of voltage and currents between HV and
LV sides and the relay will sense this and act. Bias coil will solve this.
Magnetizing inrush current appears wherever a transformer is
energized on its primary side producing harmonics. No current will
be seen by the secondary. CT’s as there is no load in the circuit. This
difference in current will actuate the differential relay. A harmonic
restraining unit is added to the relay which will block it when the
transformer is energized.
What is REF relay?
It is restricted earth fault relay. When the fault occurs very near to the
neutral point of the transformer, the voltage available to drive the
earth circuit is very small, which may not be sufficient to activate the
relay, unless the relay is set for a very low current. Hence the zone of
protection in the winding of the transformer is restricted to cover only
around 85%. Hence the relay is called REF relay.
What is over fluxing protection in transformer?
If the turns ratio of the transformer is more than 1:1, there will be
higher core loss and the capability of the transformer to withstand
this is limited to a few minutes only. This phenomenon is called over
fluxing.
Why busbar protection is needed?
Fault level at busbar is high
The stability of the system is affected by the faults in the bus zone.
A fault in the bus bar causes interruption of supply to a large portion
of the system network.
What are the merits of carrier current protection?
Fast operation, auto re-closing possible, easy discrimination of
simultaneous faults .
What are the errors in CT?
Ratio error
Percentage ratio error = [(Nominal ratio – Actual ratio)/Actual ratio]
x 100 The value of transformation ratio is not equal to the turns ratio.
(b) Phase angle error:
Phase angle =180/π[(ImCos δ-I1Sin δ)/nIs]
What is field suppression?
When a fault occurs in an alternator winding even though the
generator circuit breaker is tripped, the fault continues to fed
because EMF is induced in the generator itself. Hence the field circuit
breaker is opened and stored energy in the field winding is
discharged through another resistor. This method is known as field
suppression.
What are the causes of bus zone faults?
Failure of support insulator resulting in earth fault
Flashover across support insulator during over voltage Heavily
polluted insulator causing flashover
Earthquake, mechanical damage etc.
What are the problems in bus zone differential protection?
Large number of circuits, different current levels for different circuits
for external faults.
Saturation of CT cores due to dc component and ac component in
short circuit currents. The saturation introduces ratio error.
Sectionalizing of the bus makes circuit complicated.
Setting of relays need a change with large load changes.
What is static relay?
It is a relay in which measurement or comparison of electrical
quantities is made in a static network which is designed to give an
output signal when a threshold condition is passed which operates a
tripping device.
What is power swing?
During switching of lines or wrong synchronization surges of real and
reactive power flowing in transmission line causes severe oscillations
in the voltage and current vectors. It is represented by curves
originating in load regions and traveling towards relay characteristics.
What is a programmable relay?
A static relay may have one or more programmable units such as
microprocessors or microcomputers in its circuit.
What is CPMC?
It is combined protection, monitoring and control system
incorporated in the static system.
What are the advantages of static relay over electromagnetic
relay? o Low power consumption as low as 1mW
o No moving contacts; hence associated problems of arcing, contact
bounce, erosion, replacement of contacts
o No gravity effect on operation of static relays. Hence can be used
in vessels ie, ships, aircrafts etc.
o A single relay can perform several functions like over current, under
voltage, single phasing protection by incorporating respective
functional blocks. This is not possible in electromagnetic relays
o Static relay is compact
o Superior operating characteristics and accuracy
o Static relay can think , programmable operation is possible with
static relay
o Effect of vibration is nil, hence can be used in earthquake-prone
areas o Simplified testing and servicing. Can convert even non-
electrical quantities to electrical in conjunction with transducers.
What is resistance switching?
It is the method of connecting a resistance in parallel with the contact
space(arc). The resistance reduces the restriking voltage frequency
and it diverts part of the arc current. It assists the circuit breaker in
interrupting the magnetizing current and capacity current.
What do you mean by current chopping?
When interrupting low inductive currents such as magnetizing
currents of the transformer, shunt reactor, the rapid deionization of
the contact space and blast effect may cause the current to be
interrupted before the natural current zero. This phenomenon of
interruption of the current before its natural zero is called current
chopping.
What are the methods of capacitive switching?
Opening of single capacitor bank
Closing of one capacitor bank against another
What is an arc?
Arc is a phenomenon occurring when the two contacts of a circuit
breaker separate under heavy load or fault or short circuit condition.
Give the two methods of arc interruption?
High resistance interruption:-the arc resistance is increased by
elongating, and splitting the arc so that the arc is fully extinguished
Current zero method:-The arc is interrupted at current zero position
that occurs100 times a second in case of 50Hz power system
frequency in ac.
What is restriking voltage?
It is the transient voltage appearing across the breaker contacts at
the instant of arc being extinguished.
What is meant by recovery voltage?
The power frequency rms voltage appearing across the breaker
contacts after the arc is extinguished and transient oscillations die
out is called recovery voltage.
What is RRRV?
It is the rate of rise of restriking voltage, expressed in volts per
microsecond. It is closely associated with natural frequency of
oscillation.
What is circuit breaker?
It is a piece of equipment used to break a circuit automatically under
fault conditions. It breaks a circuit either manually or by remote
control under normal conditions and under fault conditions.
Write the classification of circuit breakers based on the medium
used for arc extinction?
Air break circuit breaker Oil circuit breaker
Minimum oil circuit breaker Air blast circuit breaker
SF6 circuit breaker
Vacuum circuit breaker
What is the main problem of the circuit breaker?
When the contacts of the breaker are separated, an arc is struck
between them. This arc delays the current interruption process and
also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the
system or to the breaker itself. This is the main problem.
What are demerits of MOCB?
Short contact life
Frequent maintenance Possibility of explosion
Larger arcing time for small currents Prone to restricts
What are the advantages of oil as arc quenching medium?
It absorbs the arc energy to decompose the oil into gases, which have
excellent cooling properties
It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between line
conductors and earthed components
What are the hazards imposed by oil when it is used as an arc
quenching medium? There is a risk of fire since it is inflammable.
It may form an explosive mixture
with arc. So oil is preferred as an arc quenching medium.
What are the advantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit breaker?
It requires lesser quantity of oil
It requires smaller space
There is a reduced risk of fire
Maintenance problem are reduced
What are the disadvantages of MOCB over a bulk oil circuit
breaker?
The degree of carbonization is increased due to smaller quantity of
oil
There is difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in
time
The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to high
degree of carbonization.
What are the types of air blast circuit breaker?
Arial-blast type
Cross blast Radial-blast
What are the advantages of air blast circuit breaker over oil
circuit breaker?
o The risk of fire is diminished
o The arcing time is very small due to rapid buildup of dielectric
strength between contacts
o The arcing products are completely removed by the blast whereas
oil deteriorates with successive operations
What are the demerits of using oil as an arc quenching medium?
The air has relatively inferior arc quenching properties
The air blast circuit breakers are very sensitive to variations in the rate
of rise of restriking voltage
Maintenance is required for the compression plant which supplies the
air blast
What is meant by electro negativity of SF6 gas?
SF6 has high affinity for electrons. When a free electron comes and
collides with a neutral gas molecule, the electron is absorbed by the
neutral gas molecule and negative ion is formed. This is called as
electro negativity of SF6 gas.
What are the characteristic of SF6 gas?
It has good dielectric strength and excellent arc quenching property.
It is inert, non-toxic, noninflammable and heavy. At atmospheric
pressure, its dielectric strength is 2.5 times that of air. At three times
atmospheric pressure, its dielectric strength is equal to that of the
transformer oil.
Write the classifications of test conducted on circuit breakers.
Type test
Routine test Reliability test
Commissioning test
What are the indirect methods of circuit breaker testing?
o Unit test
o Synthetic test
o Substitution testing o Compensation testing o Capacitance testing
What are the advantages of synthetic testing methods?
The breaker can be tested for desired transient recovery voltage and
RRRV.
Both test current and test voltage can be independently varied. This
gives flexibility to the test
The method is simple
With this method a breaker capacity (MVA) of five time of that of the
capacity of the test plant can be tested.
How does the over voltage surge affect the power system?
The over voltage of the power system leads to insulation breakdown
of the equipments. It causes the line insulation to flash over and may
also damage the nearby transformer, generators and the other
equipment connected to the line.
What is pick up value?
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to
operate.
Define target.
It is the indicator used for showing the operation of the relay.
Define reach.
It is the distance upto which the relay will cover for protection.
Define blocking.
It means preventing the relay from tripping due to its own
characteristics or due to additional relays.
Define a over current relay.
Relay which operates when the current ia a line exceeds a
predetermined value.
Define an under current relay?
Relays which operates whenever the current in a circuit drops below
a predetermined value.
Mention any 2 applications of differential relays.
Protection of generator and generator-transformer unit: protection
of large motors and bus bars
Mention the various tests carried out in a circuit breaker at HV
labs. Short circuit tests, Synthetic tests& direct tests.
Mention the advantages of field tests.
The circuit breaker is tested under actual conditions like those that
occur in the network.
Special occasions like breaking of charging currents of long lines ,very
short line faults ,interruption of small inductive currents etc… can be
tested by direct testing only.
State the disadvantages of field tests.
The circuit breaker can be tested at only a given rated voltage and
network capacity.
The necessity to interrupt the normal services and to test only at light
load conditions.
Extra inconvenience and expenses in installation of controlling and
measuring equipment in the field.
Define composite testing of a circuit breaker.
In this method the breaker is first tested for its rated breaking
capacity at a reduced voltage and afterwards for rated voltage at a
low [Link] method does not give a proper estimate of the
breaker performance.
State the various types of earthing.
Solid earthing, resistance earthing , reactance earthing , voltage
transformer earthing and zig-zag transformer earthing.
What are arcing grounds?
The presence of inductive and capacitive currents in the isolated
neutral system leads to formation of arcs called as arcing grounds.
What is arc suppression coil?
A method of reactance grounding used to suppress the arc due to
arcing grounds.
State the significance of single line to ground fault.
In single line to ground fault all the sequence networks are connected
in series. All the sequence currents are equal and the fault current
magnitude is three times its sequence currents.
What are symmetrical components?
It is a mathematical tool to resolve unbalanced components into
balanced components.
State the three sequence components.
Positive sequence components, negative sequence components and
zero sequence components.
Define positive sequence component.
-has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by
an angle 120 degrees and having the phase sequence as original
vectors.
Define zero sequence component.
They has 3 vectors having equal magnitudes and displaced from each
other by an angle zero degees.
State the significance of double line fault.
It has no zero sequence component and the positive and negative
sequence networks are connected in parallel.
Define negative sequence component.
It has 3 vectors equal in magnitude and displaced from each other by
an angle 120 degrees and has the phase sequence in opposite to its
original phasors.
State the different types of faults.
Symmetrical faults and unsymmetrical faults and open conductor
faults. 92. State the various types of unsymmetrical faults.
Line to ground ,line to line and double line to ground faults
Mention the withstanding current in our human body.
9mA
State the different types of circuit breakers.
Air ,oil,vacuum circuit breakers.
Define per unit value.
It is defined as the ratio of actual value to its base value. 96. Mention
the inductance value of the peterson’s coil.
L=1/3ωc2
Define single line diagram.
Representation of various power system components in a single line
is defined as single line diagram.
Differentiate between a fuse and a circuit breaker.
Fuse is a low current interrupting device. It is a copper or an
aluminium [Link] breaker is a high current interrupting device
and it act as a switch under normal operating conditions.
How direct tests are conducted in circuit breakers?
Using a short circuit generator as the source.
Using the power utility system or network as the source.
What is dielectric test of a circuit breaker?
It consists of overvoltage withstand test of power frequency lightning
and impulse [Link] are done for both internal and external
insulation with switch in both open and closed conditions.
1). What is the use of the negative phase sequence relay?
The negative sequence relays protect generators and motors from
imbalanced loading that might result from phase-to-phase faults.
2). What is the differential relay’s operating principle?
The phasor difference of two (or) more similar electrical variables needs
to exceed a specific threshold for a differential relay to activate.
3). Why is distance protection selected as primary protection for
the transmission lines over overcurrent protection?
For the safety of transmission lines, distance relay is better than over
current protection. Some of the factors include
• Quicker protection,
• Easier coordination,
• Simpler application,
permanent settings that don’t require readjusting, reduced impact of
generation level and fault levels, fault current size, and ability to support
heavy line loading.
4). What are the advantages of biased differential protection
over differential protection?
Biased differential relays are recommended because their operation is
unaffected by the problem caused by the variation in CTs ratios for high
external short-circuit current values.
5). Where are impedance relays, reactance relays, and mho relays
used?
• The impedance relay is appropriate for relaying phase faults on
medium-length lines.
• For ground failures, reactance type relays are used.
• Mho type relays are applicable for lengthy transmission lines,
particularly where synchronising power surges may occur.
6). What is a percentage differential relay?
It’s a differential relay with the operational current that is required to trip
stated as a percentage of the load current.
7). What types of problems are likely to arise during the functioning
of a three-phase induction motor?
The following faults are likely to occur in 3-phase induction motor
operation:
• Stator faults
o Phase to phase faults,
o Phase to earth faults, and
o Inter turn faults,
• Rotor faults
o Earth faults and
oInter turn faults
• Prolonged overloading,
• Stalling,
• Unbalanced system voltages,
• Single phasing,
• Under voltage, and
• Reverse phase.
8). Why is long-term overload protection essential for induction
motors?
Prolonged overloading of an induction motor result in excess increases
in temperature in the stator & rotor windings, as well as damage to the
insulation, resulting in a winding defect. As a result, overload protection
is provided subject to the motor’s size or rating. Overload protection
for motor cannot be initiated during motor startup.
Thermal overload relays (or) inverse over current relays are used to
protect motors from extended overloading.
9). Why does an induction motor have negative sequence current
protection?
When the motor is supplied with an imbalanced supply voltage, negative
sequence of currents flow into it. The flow of the negative sequence
currents will result in the motor to overheat.
10). What is stalling in an induction motor & how can it be avoided?
Induction motors fail to start owing to technical problems in the motor
(or) severe overloading at startup.
Stalling is a condition in which the motor fails to start and is undesirable
since the motor draws high currents. As a result, the motor should be
disconnected from the power source immediately.
An instantaneous over-current relay is used for protecting the motor from
stalling.
11). What is single phasing?
Single phasing in an induction motor is an open circuit in one of the
supply lines from a three-phase system. In this condition, the motor
continues to run while supplying a load that does not exceed 57.7% of
its normal rating and experiencing the same temperature increase as a
three-phase supply operating at full load.
12). What difficulties does single phasing cause with induction
motors?
Single phasing has a number of disadvantages, including
• The potential for severe magnetic unbalance,
• A decrease in motor performance, and
• Overheating owing to the negative phase sequence currents.
It is not suggested to operate the motor in such a condition since it will
harm it. As a result, thermal overload relays can be used to protect the
motor against single phasing.
13). What is the purpose of a circuit breaker?
An electrical circuit can be closed or opened using a mechanical
mechanism called a circuit breaker, depending on normal or abnormal
conditions.
14). What distinguishes a circuit breaker differ from a switch?
A switch is basically a device that, when used normally, can open and
close a circuit. On the other end, a circuit breaker has the capacity to
open & close the contacts in abnormal or fault conditions.
Circuit breakers therefore have a probability to break & generate strong
short circuit currents. The circuit beaker’s auto-reclosures have the
capacity to reclose after a certain amount of time to check if the short
circuit has been resolved.
15). What does “making capacity of circuit breaker” refer to?
The maximum current wave’s peak value (including the DC component)
in the initial cycle of the current after the circuit breaker closes the circuit
determines the circuit breaker’s making capability during a short circuit.
16). Why does current chopping not occur frequently in the oil
circuit breakers?
In most oil circuit breakers, the arc extinguishing power is
directly proportional to the size of the current to be interrupted, hence
current chopping is uncommon.
17). What materials are the contacts on vacuum circuit breakers
made of?
There are several alloys used as contact materials in vacuum circuit
breakers, including
• Copper-bismuth,
• Copper-lead,
• Copper-tellurium,
• Silver-bismuth,
• Silver-lead, and
• Silver-tellurium.
18). Why is current chopping seen as a major fault in the circuit
breaker?
Since current chopping causes a large voltage transient to form across
the breaker contacts, current chopping is seen as a major fault.
19). What kind of circuit breaker is often used for EHV
applications?
SF6 gas insulated switchgear is preferred for the Extra High Voltage
(EHV) applications.
20). What functions do circuit breakers perform?
The following are some of the functions of the circuit breakers:
• Asynchronous switching,
• Switching of un-loaded transmission lines & cables,
• Switching of capacitor banks,
• Switching of reactors,
• Interruption of terminal faults,
• Interruption of short line faults,
• Interruption of minor inductive currents.
21). What are the typical generator fault types?
The following fault types frequently affect synchronous generators:
• Stator winding faults
o Phase to phase faults,
o Phase to earth faults,
o Inter turn faults,
• Rotor winding faults
o Conductor to earth,
o Open circuit,
o Inter turn faults,
• Failure of the prime mover,
• Failure of the field,
• Unbalanced loading,
• Overloading,
• Overvoltage at generator terminals,
• Over-speed,
• Ventilation failure,
• Loss of excitation.
22). What types of faults are protected by differential protection?
The phasor difference between the two (or) more electrical quantities
triggers differential protection. It runs when internal problems with
transformers or generators arise. Differential protection fails to
function for external failures.
23). What drawback does regular differential protection have?
The CT’s(Current Transformer) on both ends of the generator winding
have to be accurate to the same degree when the differential relaying is
employed to protect the system.
Otherwise, if the CT errors are too high, the relay will operate improperly.
In order to defend against such drawbacks, percentage-differential
protection is used.
24). What advantage does percentage differential relay protection
provide?
• It allows for the use of a low fault setting, which ensures the
windings are protected to the maximum level possible.
• It is not required for CT’s (Current Transformer) with the air
gaps (or) specific balancing features.
• It ensures total stability even when there are the most severe
through-fault conditions.
25). Explain Differential Protection?
Differential protection typically provides protection for internal fault-
protected equipment or groups of [Link] are the major
protection systems (faster) for internal problems in the protective zone.
Healthy windings have equal currents at both ends. No current flows via
the relay working coil because CT secondaries create equal EMFs. The
relay operates when an earth fault or phase-to-phase fault occurs
because differential current that flows through the relay operating coils.
Relay operates for zone-protected faults.