Environmental Page │ 9

Quality control of water supply

Engineering
Characteristic of water: Numerical:

Characteristics of water Q9. 30 ml of raw odourful water is diluted with 200 ml of

distilled water, then what will be TON?
Physical Chemical Biological
Solution:

Physical characteristic: According to the question,

Physical characteristic A = 30 ml, B = 200 ml.

(30+200)
Colour Taste Odour Temperature Turbidity ∴ TON = 30
= 7.66̇

Answer:
Colour:
The TON is 7.66̇.
Unit for Colour in water is Hazen unit. It is also known
as True Colour unit (TCU). It is measured by Tintometer.
Q10. 60 ml of raw odourful sample is diluted to 420 ml,
For drinking purpose, limit of water for drinking is 5 Hazen
then what will be the TON?
unit and for other use, it is useful up to 15 Hazen Unit.

Solution:
1 Hazen unit = 1 mg of platinum-cobalt ions dissolve
in 1L of distilled water.
According to the question,

Taste: A = 60 ml, (A+B)= 420 ml,

Permissible limit: It should be unobjectionable. ∴ TON =

420
=7
60

Odour: Answer:

Permissible limit: should be unobjectionable for other The TON is 7.

use, but for drinking purpose, it should lie in between 1-
3 TON. It is generally measured by an instrument known
Temperature:
as Osmoscope. Unit for odour in water is Threshold
odour number (TON).
It effects the chemical and biological reactions. An
𝐀+𝐁 increase of 10° c in temperature doubles the biological
𝐓𝐎𝐍 =
𝐀 activity. Hence for water supply, temperature
measurement standard thermometer is used. For
Where, drinking purpose desirable limit is 8° - 12° c and
permissible limit is ≤ 20° c and for conveyance we can
A = Vol. of odour water (in ml), use water of temp. ≤ 35° c.

B = Vol. of distilled water (in ml).

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 10

Turbidity:
Engineering
It is the measure of extent to which light is either
absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water.

In order to measure the turbidity, the graduated

aluminum rod is lowered in water and the depth at
which the platinum needle ceases to be seen under
standard light condition is noted which directly gives
the turbidity.

Note:

Turbidity greater than 5 unit (5 mg/l) can be easily

In natural water bodies turbidity interferes with light detected by naked eye.
penetration and hence with photosynthetic reaction.
The following matters may be available in water bodies b) Jackson’s turbidity meter:
which interferes with turbidity,
The turbidity can be measured in the laboratory with
1. Settleable matter (G > 1)
the help of instrument called turbidity meter. In general,
2. Floating matter (G < 1)
a turbidity meter works on the principle of absorption of
3. Suspended matter (G = 1)
light. It can measure the turbidity more than 25 unit
(hence this method is not used for detection of turbidity
The following instrument is used to determine the of water supplies). This method is generally used to
turbidity of water, measure the turbidity of natural water bodies.

a) Turbidity Rod: In this method, metallic container having glass

bottom is used which is placed over the fluorescent
The turbidity can be easily measured in the field with lamp. The level of water is increased in the metallic
the help of a turbidity rod. It is based on the principle of container at the height at which lamp ceases to be
absorption of light. It gives the desired reading in JTU seen is noted which is further calibrated to give the
(Jackson’s turbidity unit). turbidity of the water sample in JTU (Jackson’s turbidity
unit).

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 11

the other is filled with standard water solution (of known

Engineering
Graduated
glass tube turbidity). The electric bulb is lighted and the Colour in
both the tubes is observed from the top of the
Metal instrument. If the Colour of both the tubes differ, the
container standard solution tubes are replaced by another
standard tube of different turbidity. The process is
continued till a matching is obtained in the Colours of
both the tubes. The turbidity of standard solution will
Metal stand
then correspond to the turbidity of the sample of water.
Baylis turbidity meter can precisely record low turbidities
(of the order of 0 – 2 ppm_ easily.
Light bulb

d) Nephelometer:

Note:

1. In both the above method principle involved in

calculation of turbidity is same i.e. Light absorption
principal.
2. Larger the length of the path travelled by the light,
lesser will be the turbidity.

c) Baylis turbidity meter:

The basic diff. between the Baylis turbidity meter and

Nephelometer is that, in Baylis turbidity meter the light
was seen or measured after the same passed straight
through the turbid water while in Nephelometer, the
light intensity is measured at right angles to the incident
light such an instrument therefore uses a photometer to
measure the intensity of light passing through the
turbidity water, after the same is scattered at right
angles to the incident light.

Note:

Baylis turbidity meter is based on light absorption

principle.

It consists of a closed galvanized iron box , on one Nephelometer is based on light scattering principle.
side of which two glass tubes can be held vertically side
by side. On the other side, in front of the tubes, an
In the nephelometer the turbidity is expressed in NTU
electric bulb is located with a reflector, so as to throw
(Nephelometric turbidity unit) or FTU (Formazine
light on the tubes. One of the glass tube is filled with
turbidity unit).
water sample (whose turbidity is to be measured) and

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 12

1 JTU = Standard unit which is obtained by adding 1 𝐩𝐎𝐇 = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 [𝐎𝐇− ]

Engineering
mg of silica in finely divided form as silica oxide (SiO2) in
1 lit of pure water. 𝐩𝐇 + 𝐩𝐎𝐇 = 𝟏𝟒

1 NTU = Standard unit which is obtained by adding 1 Where,

mg of formazine (HexaMethylene tetraamine) in 1 lit of
pure water. 1 mg/L = 3 NTU. Unit of [H+ ] and [OH − ] are moles/lit.

The is no relationship exist between JTU and NTU. Acceptable limit for pH is 6.5 - 8.5.

For drinking purpose turbidity should be less than 5 If pH < 6.5 it will lead to Corrosion,
NTU according to GOI manual and any case ≤ 25 NTU.
And if pH > 9.2 it will lead to Incrustation.
Chemical characteristics:
𝐆𝐈𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 =
𝐀𝐭𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐜/𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫/𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐜 𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Total solids:
Atom Molecule Ion
The total amount of solids (suspended as well as Na = 23 gm NaOH = 40 gm H+ = 1 gm
dissolved solids) present in water can be determined by
Ca = 40 gm CO2 = 44 gm OH- =17 gm
evaporating a sample of water and weighing the dry
O = 16 gm NO2 = 46 gm HCO3- = 61 gm
residue left (A). The suspended solids can be found by
Cl = 35.5 gm HCl = 36.5 gm CO32- = (60/2) gm
filtering the water sample and weighing the residue left
H = 1 gm H2O = 18 gm = 30 gm
on the filter paper (B). The difference between total
Mg = 24 gm Mg(OH)2 = 58 Ca2+ = (40/2) gm
solids (A) and suspended solids (B) will then represent
Al = 27 gm gm = 20 gm
nothing but the dissolved solids.
N = 14 gm Mg2+ = (24/2) gm
C = 12 gm = 12 gm
Another approximate method of determining the
Al3+ = (27/3) gm
total dissolved solids is electrical conductivity test. In this
=9 gm
test, di-ionic testers are used to measure electrical
conductivity in µmho/cm at 25°C.
Numerical:
𝐓𝐃𝐒 = 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝐂𝐨𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
Q11. What will be the no. of moles for 100 gm of
𝐓𝐃𝐒 = 𝐄𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 Glucose?

Total dissolve solids, desirable limit is 500 mg/l, and Solution:

permissible limit is 2000 mg/l.
As we know the molecular weight of glucose
Total suspended solids, permissible limit is 30 mg/l as (C6 H12 O6) = 180 gm.
per Environment Protection Agency (EPA).
100
∴ 100 gm of glucose = mole
180
pH:
= 0.556
It is an indicator to measure acidity of the water
sample. Answer:

𝐩𝐇 = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎[𝐇+ ] The 100 gm glucose is 0.556 mole.

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 13

Q12. What will be the no. of moles for 240 gm of Ca2+? Answer:

Engineering
Solution: The [OH− ] is 10-7.8.

As we know that the ionic weight of Ca2+ = 20 gm. Q15. pH of sample 1 is 3.5, pH of sample 2 is 7.5. How
many times sample 1 is more acidic than sample 2?
240
∴ 240 gm of Ca2+ = mole
20
Solution:
= 12 mole
For sample 1,
Answer:
pH = 3.5
240 gm of Ca2+ is 12 mole.
∴ [H+ ] = 10−pH = 10−3.5
Q13. What will be the pH of water sample [H +] = 10-8.4
For sample 2,
moles/lit?

Solution: pH = 7.5

∴ [H+ ] = 10−pH = 10−7.5

As we know,
[H+ ] 10−3.5
pH = − log10 [H+ ] ∴ [H+ ]1 =
10−7.5
= 104
2

∴ pH o the water sample = − log10 10−8.4 Answer:

= 8.4 Sample 1 is 104 times more acidic than sample 2.

Answer: Q16. If pH of a sample is decreased to 3.2 from 3.5 then

percentage increase in acidity will be.
pH of the water sample is 8.4.
Solution:
Q14. What will be the [𝐎𝐇− ] for a water sample having
pH = 6.2? According to the question,

Solution: Initial pH = 3.5,

As we know, Final pH = 3.2,

pH + pOH = 14, ∴ Initial [H+ ] = 10−3.5

or, 6.2 + pOH = 14 ∴ Final [H+ ] = 10−3.2

or, pOH = 14 − 6.2 = 7.8 10−3.2 −10−3.5

∴% increase in acidity = 10−3.5
× 100%
and, pOH = − log10[OH− ]
10−3.2 −10−3.5
= × 100%
10−3.5
∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−7.8

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 14

= 99.5% ∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−8.7 mole/lilt

Engineering
Answer: = 10−8.7 × 17 × 103 mg/L

Percentage increase in acidity is 99.5 %. = 3.39 × 10−5 mg/L

Q17. pH of sample 1 is 4.6, pH of sample 2 is 6.6. What Answer:

will be the ratio of basicity?
The [OH− ] is 3.39 × 10−5 mg/L.
Solution:
Q19. If [OH-]= 10-12 mmoles/L then what will be the
For sample 1, concentration of [H+] ions in mg/L?

According to the question, Solution:

pH = 4.6 According to the question,

pOH = 14 − pH = 14 − 4.6 = 9.4 [OH− ] = 10−12 mmoles/L

∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−9.4 = 10−15 moles/L

For sample 2, ∴ pOH = − log10 10−15 = 15

According to the question, As we know,

pH = 6.6 pH + pOH = 14

pOH = 14 − pH = 14 − 6.6 = 7.4 ∴ pH = 14 − 15 = −1 (it isn’t possible)

∴ [OH− ] = 10−pOH = 10−7.4 Answer:

[OH− ] 10−9.4
∴ Ratio of basicity = [OH− ]1 = 10−7.4 = 0.01 The problem can’t be solved.
2

Q20. Solve the previous question if [OH-]= 10-10

Answer:
mmoles/lit.
The ratio of basicity is 0.01.
Solution:
Q18. If pH of a sample is 5.3 then [OH-] in mg/lit will be.
According to the question,
Solution:
[OH− ] = 10−10 mmoles/L
According to the question,
= 10−13 moles/L
pH = 5.3,
∴ pOH = − log10 10−13 = 13
∴ pOH = 14 − pH = 14 − 5.3 = 8.7
As we know,

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 15

∴ pH = 14 − pOH = 14 − 13 = 1 Answer:

Engineering
∴ [H+ ] = 10−pH = 10−1 moles/L The [OH− ]B is 2.92 × 10−5 kg/day.

= 10−1 × 1 g/L Q22. In a water treatment plant, the pH value of

incoming and outgoing waters is 7.2 and 8.4
= 10−1 × 103 mg/L respectively. Assuming a linear variation of pH with
time, determine the average pH value of water.
= 102 mg/L
Solution:
Answer:
According to the question,
Concentration of H+ ion is 100 mg/L.
pHi = 7.2,pHo = 8.4
Q21. If pH of sample A is 3.6 and sample B is 100 times
less acidic then sample A. Then [OH-] ion concentration [H+ ]i = 10−pHi = 10−7.2 mole/L
in Kg/day for a discharge of 0.005 cumecs will be.
[H+ ]o = 10−pHo = 10−8.4 mole/L
Solution:
[H+ ]i +[H+ ]o
[H+ ]average = mole/L
According to the question, 2

10−7.2 +10−8.4
pHA = 3.6 = mole/L
2

∴ [H+ ]A = 10−pHA = 10−3.6 mole/L = 3.35 × 10−8 mole/L

10−3.6
∴ [H+ ]B = = 10−5.6 mole/L pHaverage = − log10 3.35 × 10−8
100

∴ [pHB ] = − log10 10−5.6 = 5.6 = 7.474955

∴ pOHB = 14 − pHB = 14 − 5.6 = 8.4 Answer:

∴ [OH− ]B = 10−pOHB = 10−8.4 mole/L The average pH is 7.474955.

= 10−8.4 × 17 g/L Hardness:

= 17 × 10−11.4 kg/L Hardness is the measure of concentration of
multivalent cation (Ca2+,Mg2+, Al3+, Fe2+,Sr2+, Mn2+) in the
Discharge = 0.005 cumecs water sample. All these cation imparts hardness.

= 0.005 × 1000 × 24 × 60 × 60 L/day Ca2+,Mg2+, Al3+ are major constituents of hardness.

= 432000 L/day Fe2+,Sr2+, Mn2+ are minor constituents of hardness.

∴ [OH− ]B = 17 × 10−11.4 × 432000 kg/day Hardness is of two types,

= 2.92 × 10−5 kg/day

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 16

1) Carbonate hardness: Sources of alkalinity are the minerals present in water

Engineering
CO32- and HCO3- of all the multivalent cations
and atmospheric CO2.

𝐇𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐂𝐎𝟐 ⇌ 𝐇𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑 ⇌ 𝐇+ + 𝐇𝐂𝐎−

(Ca2+,Mg2+, Al3+) is known as carbonate hardness. This 𝟑

hardness is also known as temporary hardness and can

𝐇𝐂𝐎− + 𝟐−
𝟑 ⇌ 𝐇 + 𝐂𝐎𝟑
be removed by simple boiling or addition of lime.

∆ When pH is between 8-11 then,

𝐂𝐚(𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 )𝟐 → 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓

∆
𝐂𝐎𝟐− −
𝟑 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 ⇌ 𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝐎𝐇
−

𝐌𝐠(𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 )𝟐 → 𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎
𝐚𝐥𝐠𝐚𝐞
𝐂𝐚(𝐎𝐇)𝟐
𝐇𝐂𝐎−
𝟑 → 𝐎𝐇−
𝐌𝐠𝐂𝐎𝟑 → 𝐌𝐠(𝐎𝐇)𝟐 + 𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 ↓
Determination of hardness:
2) Non-carbonate hardness:
Hardness of water sample is calculated in lab by
Hardness due to Cl-,andSO42- of NO3- Ca2+,Mg2+, Al 3+ EDTA solution (Ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid),
is known as non-carbonate hardness. It is also known as using Eriochrome black T as the indicator. The end point
Permanent hardness and it can be removed by Zeolite of the titration is indicated by change of the Colour of
(ion exchange) method or Lime soda process. water from wine red to black blue.

Note: Desirable limit of hardness of drinking water is 200

mg/l, permissible limit is 600 mg/l.
By zeolite method 100% hardness can be removed.
Note:

Impacts: Hardness is always determined in terms of CaCO 3.

1) Hardness leads to lesser formation of foam there

by increases the consumption of soap. Formulae:
2) Mg hardness of SO42- induces laxative effect if
greater than 50 mg/l. Total hardness as CaCO3,
3) Hardness leads to corrosion and incrustation.
4) Hardness leads to scaling in boilers which leads to 50 50
= (Ca2+ × 20) + (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Al3+ ×
50
) mg/L
9
bad economy.
Alkalinity as CaCO3,
Alkalinity:
50 50 50
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17) mg/L
= (CO2− − −

It is the number of ions present on water which are

capable of neutralizing [H+ ] ions in water. Alkalinity
Carbonate hardness,
occurs because of presence of CO32- ions, HCO3- ions
and slightly because of [OH− ] ions. On the basis of that
= Alkalinity or Total hardness whichever is less.
alkalinity is divided into three categories,

Noncarbonate hardness,
i. Carbonate,
ii. Bicarbonate,
= Total hardness – Carbonate hardness.
iii. Caustic.

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 17

Relation between hardness and Note:

Engineering
alkalinity:
Carbonate hardness will always be equal to total
hardness, generally in case of highly alkaline water for
At pH 8.3 OH- ion and half of CO32- are neutralized,
which noncarbonate hardness will always be negligible
at pH 4.5 the HCO3- ion and left half of CO32- are
or zero.
neutralized i.e. whole alkalinity is neutralized.

Hardness as CaCO3
Degree of hardness
pH mg/L
0-55 soft
OH- + half of 56-100 Moderately soft
CO32- 101-200 Hard
> 200 Very hard
8.3
HCO3- + half of
CO32- Sodium aluminate:
4.5
It reacts with Ca and Mg present in water,
OH- + HCO3- + CO32-

P M Na 2Al2 O4 + Ca(HCO3 )2 → Ca(Al2 O4 )2 ↓ +Na 2CO3 + CO2 +

H2 O
ml of titrant

Na 2Al2 O4 + CaCl2 → Ca(Al2 O4 )2 ↓ +2NaCl

Conversion of carbonate to bicarbonate is
essentially completed at pH of 8,3 after this Na 2Al2 O4 + CaSO4 → Ca(Al2 O4 )2 ↓ +Na 2 SO4
bicarbonate still requires hydronium ion for its complete
neutralization. Hence it can be stated that half of the It also reduces temporary and permanent hardness,
carbonate alkalinity is neutralized at pH of 8.3.
Neutralization of hydroxide ion is also completed at pH It is costlier than alum,
of 8.3. Hence at pH of 8.3, total alkalinity neutralized is
of half carbonate and caustic alkalinity. Volume of acid Its pH range is 6 – 8.5.
use to neutralize this alkalinity is “P” ml. At pH of 4.5
bicarbonate alkalinity originally present in this system
and converted from carbonate is neutralized. Total Numerical:
volume of acid used for complete neutralization is “M”
ml. Q23. Find the total hardness of water sample in mg/L as
CaCO3 if,
If pH is 2.8 to 4.4, methyl orange is used as an
indicator which changes its Colour from red to yellow. Cation Concentration (mg/L)
If pH is 8.6 to 10.3, Phenolphthalein is used as an Na+ 40
indicator which changes its Colour from yellow to red. Mg2+ 10
If P = M, only caustic alkalinity is present, Ca2+ 55
If P = M/2, only carbonate alkalinity is present, K+ 2
If P = 0, only bicarbonate alkalinity is present,
If P > M/2, caustic and carbonate alkalinity is present Solution:
in major amount,
If P < M/2, carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity is As we know,
present in major amount.

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 18

TH = (Mg 2+ ×
50
) + (Ca2+ ×
50
) + (Al3+ ×
50
) = 17 × 10-7 g/L

Engineering 50
12

50
= (10 × 12) + (55 × 20) + 0
20 9

= 17 × 10-4 mg/L

50 50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × ) + (Ca2+ × ) + (Al3+ × )
= 179.16 mg/L 12 20 9

50 50 50
Answer: = (30 × 12) + (40 × 20) + (3 × 9
)

The total hardness as CaCO3 is 179.16 mg/L. = 241.67 mg/L

Q24. Find Total hardness if concentration of Ca2+ = 160 Alkalinity = (CO2− −50 −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17)
50 50

mg/l and Mg2+ = 40 mg/l .

50 50 50
= (0 × ) + (190 × ) + (17 × 10−4 × )
Solution: 30 61 17

As we know, = 155.74 mg/L

50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Ca2+ × 20) + (Al3+ ×
50
) CH = 155.74 mg/L
9

50 50
NCH = TH – CH
= (40 × 20) + (160 × 12) + 0
= 241.67 – 155.74 mg/L
= 566.67 mg/L
= 85.93 mg/L
Answer:
Answer:
The total hardness is 566.67 mg/L.
The noncarbonate hardness of water is 85.93 mg/L.
Q25. Find the noncarbonate hardness of water sample
in mg/L as CaCO3 if, pH is 7 and, Q26. Determine the NCH if pH = 12 and,

Cation Concentration (mg/L) Cation Concentration (mg/L)

Na+ 70
Na+ 56
Mg2+ 15
Mg2+ 30
Ca2+ 40
Ca2+ 40
Fe3+ 200
Al3+ 3
HCO3- 55
HCO3- 190
Cl- 250
Cl- 165
SO42- 76
Solution:
Solution:
As, pH = 7
As, pH = 12

∴ pOH = 14 - 7 = 7
∴ pOH = 14 - 12 = 2

[OH-] = 10-7 mole/L

[OH-] = 10-2 mole/L

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 19

= 17 × 10-2 g/L = 200 mg/L

Engineering = 17 × 10 mg/L Answer:

TH = (Mg 2+ ×
50
) + (Ca2+ ×
50
) + (Al3+ ×
50
) The noncarbonate hardness is 200 mg/L.
12 20 9

50 50 50 Q28. Ground water has pH = 7.0, concentration of HCO3-

= (15 × 12) + (40 × 20) + (0 × )
9 = 122 mg/l. Calculate Alkalinity in CaCO3.

= 162.5 mg/L Solution:

50 50 50
Alkalinity = (CO2− − −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17) As, pH = 7

50 50 50 ∴ pOH = 14 - 7 = 7
= (0 × ) + (55 × ) + (17 × 10 × )
30 61 17

[OH-] = 10-7 mole/L

= 545.08 mg/L
= 17 × 10-7 g/L
CH = 162.5 mg/L
= 17 × 10-4 mg/L
NCH = TH – CH
50 50 50
Alkalinity = (CO2−
3 × ) + (HCO−
3 × ) + (OH− × )
= 162.5 – 162.5 mg/L 30 61 17

50 50 50
= 0 mg/L = (0 × 30) + (122 × 61) + (17 × 10−4 × 17)

Answer: = 100.005 mg/L

The noncarbonate hardness of water is 0 mg/L. Answer:

Q27. If total hardness and alkalinity are 300mg/l and The alkalinity as CaCO3 is 100.005 mg/L.
100mg/l then carbonate and non-carbonate hardness
will be Q29. pH of tomato juice= 4.1, Find the concentration of
H+ ion in moles/lit.
Solution:
Solution:
According to the question,
As, pH = 4.1
TH = 300 mg/L,
∴ [H+] = 10-4.1 mole/L
Alkalinity = 100 mg/L,
= 7.943 × 10-5 mole/L
∴ CH = 100 mg/L,
Answer:
∴ NCH = TH – CH
The concentration is 7.943 × 10-5 mole/L.
= 300 – 100 mg/L

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 20

Q30. Find out the NCH as CaCO3 if pH = 8.5 and, Solution:

Engineering Cation
Concentration The NCH as CaCO3 is 0 mg/L.
(milliequivalent/L)
Cl- 15 Q31. Find the NCH if,
SO42- 15
CO32- 5 0 3.5 7

HCO3- 30
Ca2+ Mg2+
Ca2+ 12
Mg2+ 18 HCO3- Cl-

0 5.2 7
Solution:

As, pH = 8.5 Solution:

50 50 50
∴ pOH = 14 – 8.5 = 5.5 TH = (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Ca2+ × 20) + (Al3+ × )
9

[OH-] = 10-5.5 mole/L = (3.5 × 50) + (3.5 × 50) + (0 × 50)

= 17 × 10-5.5 g/L = 350 mg/L

= 17 × 10-2.5 mg/L Alkalinity = (CO2−

50
− −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17)
50 50

= 10-2.5 milliequivalent/L 50
= (0 × 50) + (5.2 × 50) + (0 × 17)
50 50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × 12) + (Ca2+ × 20) + (Al3+ × )
9
= 260 mg/L

= (18 × 50) + (12 × 50) + (0 × 50)

CH = 260 mg/L

= 1500 mg/L
NCH = TH – CH = 350 – 260 mg/L = 90 mg/L
50 50 50
Alkalinity = (CO2− − −
3 × 30) + (HCO3 × 61) + (OH × 17) Solution:

= (5 × 50) + (30 × 50) + (10−2.5 ×

50
) The NCH as CaCO3 is 90 mg/L.
17

= 1750 mg/L Q32. Find the NCH if,

0 4 5 7
CH = 1500 mg/L
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+

NCH = TH – CH
HCO3- SO42-

= 1500 – 1500 mg/L 0 3.5 7

= 0 mg/L Solution:

50 50 50
TH = (Mg 2+ × ) + (Ca2+ × ) + (Al3+ × )
12 20 9

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 21

= (1 × 50) + (4 × 50) + (0 × 50) According to the question, pH = 10

Engineering
= 250 mg/L ∴ pOH = 14 – 10 = 4

Alkalinity = (CO2−
3 ×
50
) + (HCO−
3 ×
50
) + (OH− ×
50
) ∴ [OH− ] = 10−4 mole/L
30 61 17

50 = 17 × 10−4 g/L
= (0 × 50) + (3.5 × 50) + (0 × )
17

= 1.7 mg/L
= 175 mg/L
1.7
∴ [OH− ] as CaCO3 = × 50 mg/L
CH = 175 mg/L 17

= 5 mg/L
NCH = TH – CH = 250 – 175 mg/L = 75 mg/L
1
3 + OH = 55 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO 3
∵ 2 CO−2 −
Solution:

The NCH as CaCO3 is 75 mg/L. 3 as CaCO3 = ( 55 – 5 ) × 2 mg/L

∴ CO−2

Q33. A 200 ml of sample of water has initial pH 10. 30 ml = 100 mg/L

of 0.02 N H2SO4 is require titrating the sample to pH of
4.5 and 11 ml of 0.02 N H 2SO4 is require titrating the 3 + HCO3 + OH = 150 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO 3
∵ CO−2 − −

sample to pH of 8.3. Calculate the total alkalinity of

water in mg/L as CaCO3. Also calculate the 3 as CaCO3 = 150 – 100 – 5 mg/L
∴ HCO−
concentration of alkaline species in mg/L as CaCO3.
= 45 mg/L
Solution:
Answer:
In 200 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize
1
3 , OH alkalinity = 11 ml
CO−2 − The total alkalinity as CaCO3 is 150 mg/L, [OH− ] as
2
CaCO3 is 5 mg/L, [HCO− 3 ] as CaCO3 is 45 mg/L and [CO3 ]
−2

In 1000 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize as CaCO3 is 100 mg/L.

1 1000
3 , OH alkalinity =
CO−2 × 11 ml = 55 ml
−
2 200
Nitrogen content:
1
∴ 55 ml 0.02 N H2SO4 req to neutralize CO−2
3 , OH
−
2
In water nitrogen is available in following forms,
alkalinity = 55 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3

In 200 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize 1. Free ammonia:

CO−2 −
3 , HCO3 , OH
−
alkalinity = 30 ml
It indicates recent pollution in the water.
In 1000 ml sample, vol. of acid used to neutralize
1000 It can be calculated by simple boiling the water and
CO−2 HCO−3 , OH alkalinity = × 30 ml = 150 ml
−
3 , 200
measuring the amount of liberated ammonia gas by
simple distillation process.
∴ 150 ml 0.02 N H2SO4 req to neutralize CO−2 −
3 , HCO3 ,
OH− alkalinity = 150 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3
Its desirable and permissible limit is 0.15 mg/l.

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 22

2. Organic ammonia: Fluoride:

Engineering
It indicates the presence of nitrogen before the Its desirable limit is 1mg/l and permissible limit is 1.5
decomposition of organic matter is started. mg/l.

It can be calculated by boiling the already boiled To remove fluoride, we use defluoridation.
sample of water for testing of free ammonia by the Defluoridation is done by following technique,
addition of strong alkaline by agents like KMnO 4 and
calculating the quantity of ammonia gas liberated. i. Addition of calcium phosphate,
ii. Nalgonda technique.
Its desirable and permissible limit is 0.3 mg/l.
Effects:
Note:
< 1 mg/l, it helps to prevent dental cavities.
Free ammonia and Organic ammonia combinedly
called as KJELDAHL ammonia. Up to 1.5 - 2 mg/l, decolourization of teeth or
mottling of teeth occurs.
3. Nitrite:
> 5 mg/l, deformation of bone called bone fluorosis
or brittle bones occurs.
Nitrite indicates partially decomposed organic
matter. Nitrite is highly dangerous to human body
hence it has no relaxation in drinking water. Chloride:

It can be calculated by colour matching technique The presence of chloride in water indicates pollution
and colour is produced by combination of sulphonic due to sewage or industrial waste.
acid and napthamine (as indicator).
Its desirable limit is 200 – 250 mg/l, and permissible
Its desirable and permissible limit is 0 mg/l. limit is 1000 mg/l.

4. Nitrate: For the determination of chloride content, we add

Silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution and titrate with Potassium
chromate (K2CrO4).
The presence of nitrate in water indicate complete
decomposition of organic matter.
Summary:
Excess of nitrate causes methemoglobinemia (blue
baby disease). Properties Desirable limit Permissible limit
Colour 5 TCU 15 TCU
Its desirable and permissible limit is 45 mg/l. Taste Unobjectionable Unobjectionable
Odour 1 – 3 TON Unobjectionable
It can be determined with the help of Colour Temperature 8 - 12° C < 20° C
matching technique and Colour is formed by phenol Turbidity ≤ 5 NTU ≤ 25 NTU
disulphonic acid and KOH. pH 6.5 mg/l 8.5 mg/l
Total dissolve
500 mg/l 2000 mg/l
solids
Suspended
30 mg/l 30 mg/l
solids

MUKESH RAI
Environmental Page │ 23

Hardness 200 mg/l 600 mg/l Facultative bacteria:

Engineering
Free
ammonia
Organic
0.15 mg/l 0.15 mg/l
Bacteria which can survive both in the presence and
0.3 mg/l 0.3 mg/l absence of oxygen in known as facultative bacteria.
ammonia
Nitrite 0 mg/l 0 mg/l
Nitrate 45 mg/l 45 mg/l Coliform colony:
Fluoride 1 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Chloride 250 mg/l 1000 mg/l Coliform colony are of two types,
Sulfide 0.05 mg/l No relaxation
Sulphate 200 mg/l 400 mg/l
1. E. coli (Escherichia coli),
Cyanide 0.05 mg/l No relaxation
2. B. coli (bacillus coli).
Lead 0.01 mg/l No relaxation
Mercury 0.001 mg/l No relaxation
Arsenic 0.01 mg/l 0.05 mg/l E. coli (Escherichia coli):
Argon 0.01 mg/l No relaxation
Cadmium 0.003 mg/l No relaxation It isn’t a pathogenic bacteria, but it indicates
Chromium 0.05 mg/l No relaxation probable presence of pathogenic bacteria in water. It
Chloroform 0.21 mg/l No relaxation is found in intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is very
adaptive in nature and last longer.
Biological characteristics:
Determination of coliform:
Pathogenic bacteria:
We can determine the coliform by following
Bacteria which can causes harm to human body is techniques,
known as pathogenic bacteria.
1) Plate count test:
Nonpathogenic bacteria:
1 ml of sample water is diluted with 99 ml of distilled
Bacteria can’t cause harm to human body is known water. 1 ml of diluted water is mixed with 10 ml of agar
as nonpathogenic bacteria. of gelatin which serves as a medium for the bacteria’s
to ferment gas. The sample so obtained is supervised
under microscope and coliform colonies per 100 ml is
Aerobic bacteria: counted.

Bacteria which requires oxygen for their survival is

known as aerobic bacteria. The process which takes 2) Membrane filter technique:
place in the presence of oxygen is known as aerobic
process. In this method, bacteria’s are passed through sterile
membrane (i.e. porosity 80%, pore size 5 to 10 µm) on
which bacteria retained out. Under microscope
Anaerobic bacteria: coliform colonies are corrected. For both the above
test the glass slides for microscope are put in incubator
Bacteria which don’t require oxygen for their survival at 20° C for 48 hrs. or 35° C for 24 hrs. for the formation
is known as anaerobic bacteria and the process carries of gas.
out by them is known as anaerobic process.

MUKESH RAI