PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONT ROL-state members of computer family using intregrated circuits instead of electomechanical devices to implement control functions. They can store instructions like sequencing ,timing counting ,arithmetic,data manipulation and communication to control industrial machines and processing. In early 70s were used as relay replacers in controlling industrial automation..its operation include ON/OFF control of the machines and process that requiredADVANCEMENTS In advanced programmable controller in industry, changes occur in both hardware(physical components) and software(control program). example of hardware advancement [Link] scan time using advanced microprocessor and electronics technology [Link] low cost PLCs [Link] -density I/O system provide space —efficient interfaces at low costIe mE REMUS [Link] incoperate with OOPs tools and multiple languages based on IE 1131-3 standards [Link] PLCs have been provided with powerful instructions which extend area of application for small controllers [Link] level languages such as BASIC and C have been implemented [Link] functional block instructions have been implemented for ladder diagram for easy instruction command.Principle of operation ~ I/O and the CPUGPU consist of processor memory system, i consist of processor, memory system, and the power supply .it govern all PLC activities 1/0 system are connected to the field device that encountered the machine and may be discrete or analogy such as limit switch, pressure transducers, push buttons, motor starter ,solenoids ‘During operation CPU can 1. read or accept data from inputs [Link] or performs ,control program stored in the memory system [Link] or updates thea ‘| The whole process of sequentially reading the inputs ,executing the program in the memory and updating the output is known as scanning Always the programming device or PC are required to enter program into a memory ‘| Assignment : application of plc and its rangesLadder diagram a q It’s a traditional way of representing electrical sequences of operations. It represent the interconnection of field devices in such a way that the activation or turning ON, of one device will turn ON another device according to pre determined sequence of eventsExample of simple u1“transformation of previous ladder diagram to PLC format.”. q Note the real I/O field devices are connected to input and output interfaces while the ladder program is implemented in a manner similar to hardwiring inside the PLC ‘s CPU (Softwired) Instead of hardwired in a panel CPU reads the status of inputs ,energizes the corresponding ckt element according to the program and controls a real output device via the output interfaces.PLC format ladder diagram u1 12 u1 uw PB1 PL PB1 tsi PL x 2 “st Ls2 Ls2 {(_] represents input module —<> represents output modulePossible solutions ne q For the hardwired [Link] in fig. 1 the pilot light(PL) will turn ON if the limit switch 1(LS1) and push button PB1 or limit switch 2(LS2) closes. For PLC ckt in fig.2 the same series of events will cause the pilot light connected to output module to turn ON. The fig.3 shows possible configurations for the ckt in fig.1 ,the highlighted blue lines indicate that power is present to that connection pointElectric(hardwired) and PLC ckt. Illustration from fig.1&2 Hardwired Description PLC No Event = PET ist PL, | Takes Pie aan PBI LSt PL Pu FOS pet is open eo 1 -O- LS1is Open ust im LS2 is Open of} | PLISOFF i is2 of PBI Is Closeo “a fer ist ws St is Open 1 Or sz Open ist PLisOFF tse H us2 ot PBI ls Closed St is Open PLISOFFCont.. a Pat AL ust PL) oe coced PBI LSt PL °) ane s us2 PLIGON os Ls PE ust PL, PBI Lst PL PBt Is Open | (ste Closed is2 L526 Closed LsAdvantages of PLCs q Generally PLC architecture is modular and flexible, allowing hardware and software elements to expand as the application require changes i.e for large application the small unit can be easily replaced with a unit having greater memory and I/O Capacity. Provides many benefits to control system from reliability and repeatability to programmabilityTHE MEMORY SYSTEM AND wn LLO_INTERACTION. q The memory system is the area in the PLC’s CPU where all of the sequences of instructions, or programs, are stored and executed by the processor to provide the desired control of field devices The memory sections that contain the control programs can be changed, or reprogrammed to adapt to manufacturing line procedure changes or new system start-up requirements.The total memory system in a PLC is actually composed of two different the executive memory the application memory The executive memory is a collection of permanently stored programs that are considered part of the PLC itself. These supervisory programs direct all system activities, such as execution of the control program and communication with peripheral devices(i.e., relay instructions, block transfer functions, math instructions, etc.). This area of memory is not accessible to the user.Cont.... a The application memory provides a storage area for the user-programmed instructions that form the application program. The application memory area is composed of several areas, each having a specific function and usage. The storage and retrieval requirements for the executive and application memory sections are not the same; therefore, they are not always stored in the same type of memory. For example, the executive requires amemory that permanently stores its contents and cannot be erased or altered either by loss of electrical power or by the user. This type of memory is often unsuitable for the application program.Memory can be separated into two categories = Q Volatile memory loses its programmed contents if all operating power is lost or removed, whether it is normal power or some form of backup power Volatile memory is easily altered and quite suitable for most applications when supported by battery backup and possibly a disk copy of the program. Nonvolatile memory retains its programmed contents, even during a complete loss of operating power, without requiring a backup source. Nonvolatile memory generally is unalterable, yet there are special nonvolatile memory types that are alterable. Today's PLCs include those that use nonvolatile memory, those that use volatile memory with battery backup, as well as those that offer both.Input &Output devices The input devices include digital and analogue devices such as mechanical switches for position detection, proximity switches, photoelectric switches, encoders, temperature and pressure switches, potentiometers, linear variable differential transformers, strain gauges, thermistors, thermo transistors and thermocouples. Output devices considered include relays,contactors,solenoid valves and motors.Input Devices o The term sensor is used for an input device that provides a usable output in response to a specified physical input. For example, a thermocouple is a sensor which converts a temperature difference into an electrical output. Sensors which give digital/discrete, i.e. on-off, outputs can be easily connected to the input ports of PLCs. Sensors which give analogue signals have to be converted to digital signals before inputting them to PLC ports.Examples Of Some Of The Commonly Used PLC Input Devices And Their Sensors. M1. Mechanical switches ®» — Amechanical switch generates an on-off signal or signals as a result of some mechanical input causing the switch to open or close. Such a switch might be used to indicate the presence of a work piece on a machining table, the work piece pressing against the switch and so closing it. “The absence of the work piece is indicated by the switch being open and its presence by it being closed Example on the fig (a),shows the input signals to a single input channel of the PLC with its logic levels work piece not present 0 work piece present 1 relCont... (a) (b)PEE eS pee Ne The 1 level might correspond to a 24 V d.c. input, the Oto a 0 V input a q With the arrangement shown in Figure (b), when the switch is open the supply voltage is applied to the PLC input, when the switch is closed the input voltage drops to a low value. The logic levels are thus: Work piece not present 1 Work piece present 0 Switches are available with normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts or can be configured as either by choice of the relevant contacts. An NO switch has its contacts open in the absence of a mechanical input and the mechanical input is used to close the switch. An NC switch has its contacts closed i in the absence of Te ae[Link] switches q Proximity switches are used to detect the presence of an item without making contact with it. There are a number of forms of such switches, some being only suitable for metallic objects. The eddy current type of proximity switch has a coil which is energised by a constant alternating current and produces a constant alternating magnetic field. When a metallic object is close to it, eddy currents & voltage are induced in it. The voltage can be used to activate an electronic switch circuit, basically a transistor which has its output switched from low to high by the voltage change, and so give an on-off device[Link] sensors and switches = transmissive types where the object being detected breaks a beam of light, usually infrared radiation, and stops it reaching the detector or reflective types where the object being detected reflects a beam of light onto the detector “In both types the radiation emitter is generally a light-emitting diode (LED). The radiation detector might be a phototransistor, often a pair of transistors, known as a Darlington pair. The Darlington pair increases the sensitivity. Depending on the circuit used, the output can be made to switch to either high or low when light strikes the transistor. Such sensors are supplied as packages for sensing the presence of objects at close range, typically at less than about 5mmLight-emitting diode Light-emitting diode / Za “>! opject —_ + Photodetector Photodetector With the above sensors, light is converted to a current, voltage or resistance change. If the output is to be used as a measure of the intensity of the light, rather than just the presence or absence of some object in the light path, the signal will need amplification and then conversion from analogue to digital by an analogue-to-digital converter.4. Encoders ne q The term encoder is used for a device that provides a digital output as a result of angular or linear displacement. An increment encoder detects changes in angular or linear displacement from some datum position, while an absolute encoder gives the actual angular or linear position. The Fig . On next slide shows the basic form of an incremental encoder for the measurement of angular displacement. A beam of light, from perhaps a light-emitting diode (LED), passes through slots ina disc and is detected by a light sensor, e.g. a photodiode or phototransistor. When the disc rotates, the light beam is alternately transmitted and stopped and so a pulsed output is produced from the lightDetector > oS Light Single aperture res ~_ Rotating dies 0 DooneTa g The absolute encoder differs from the incremental encoder in having a pattern of slots which uniquely defines each angular position. With the form shown in Figure on next slide the rotating disc has four concentric circles of slots and four sensors to detect the light pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the sensors is a number in the binary code, each such number corresponding to a particular angular position. With 4 tracks there will be 4 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 2*4 = 16, ie. a resolution of 360/16 = 22.5%. Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks. The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the number of tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of positions that can be detected is 2°10, i.e. 1024, a resolution of 360/1024 = 0.35 “o.SS ‘| The rotating wheel of the absolute encoder. Note that though the normal form of binary code is shown in the above figure, in practice a modified form of binary code called the Gray code is generally used. This code, unlike normal binary, has only one bit changing in moving from one number to the next. Thus we have the sequence 0000, 0001, 0011, | 0010, 0011, 0711, 0101, 0100, 1100, 1107, 11171.OUTPUT DEVICES and signal conditioning functions so that sensors and actuators can often be directly connected to them without the need for other circuitry. It is also through the input/output unit that programs are entered from a program panel. Every input/output point has a unique address which can be used by the CPU. Electrical isolation from the external world is usually by means of optoisolators (the term optocoupler is also often used).Opto coupler | Infrared radiation pone conn ne | Light- \ emitting ad Photo- ! transistor | ! yq When a digital pulse passes through the light-emitting diode, a pulse of infrared radiation is produced. This to a voltage in that circuit. The gap between the light-emitting diode and the phototransistor gives electrical isolation but the arrangement still allows for a digital pulse in one circuit to give rise to a digital pulse in another circuit. The digital signal that is generally compatible with the microprocessor in the PLC is 5 V d.c. However, signal conditioning in the input channel with isolation, enables a wide range of input signals to be supplied to it. A range of inputs might be available with a larger PLC, e.g. 5 V, 24 V, 110 V and 240 V digital/discrete, Outputs are specified as being of relay type, transistor tvpe or triac tvpeWith the relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate arelay and is able to switch currents of the order of a few amperes in an external circuit. The relay not only | are, however, relatively slow to operate. Relay outputs are suitable for a.c. and d.c. switching. They can withstand high surge currents and voltage transients. The transistor type of output uses a transistor to switch current through the external circuit. This gives a considerably faster switching action. It is, however, strictly for d.c. switching and is destroyed by over current and high reverse voltage. As a protection, either a fuse or built-in electronic protection are used. Optoisolators are used to provide isolation Triac outputs, with optoisolators for isolation, can be used to control external loads which are connected to the ac. power supply. It is strictly for a.c. operation and is very easily destroved hy overcurrent. Fuses are virtually1. Relay q Solenoids form the basis of a number of output control actuators. When a current passes through a solenoid a magnetic field is produced and this can then attract ferrous metal components in its vicinity. One example of such an actuator is the relay, the term contactor being used when large currents are involved. When the output from the PLC is switched on, the solenoid magnetic field is produced and pulls on the contacts and so closes a switch or switches . The result is that much larger currents can be switched on. Thus the relay might be used to switch on the current to a motor.From PLC ——Relay Switched2. Directional control valves Ta Another example of the use of a solenoid as an actuator is a solenoid operated valve. The valve may be used to control the directions of flow of pressurised air or oil and so used to operate other devices such as a piston moving in a cylinder.[Link] a “ Ad.c. motor has coils of wire mounted in slots on a oylinder of ferromagnetic material, this being termed the armature. ‘The armature is mounted on bearings and is free to rotate. Itis mounted in the magnetic field produced by permanent magnets or current passin through coils of wire, these being termed the field coils. ‘When a current passes through the armature coil, forces act on the coil and result in rotation. Brushes and a commutator are used to reverse the current through the coil every half rotation and so keep the coil rotating. ‘The speed of rotation can be changed by changing the size of the current to the armature coil.I/O PROCESSING Qn The input/output (1/0) unit provides the interface between the PLC controller and the outside world and must therefore provide the necessary signal conditioning to get the signal to the required level and also to isolate it from possible electrical hazards such as high voltages This chapter includes the forms of typical input/output modules and installation where sensors are some distance from the PLC processing, their communication links to the PLC.Input signals from sensors and the outputs required for actuating devices can be: SS 1. Analogue, i.e. a signal whose size is related to the size of the quantity being sensed. 2. Discrete, i.e. essentially just an on-off signal. 3. Digital, i.e. a sequence of pulses The CPU, however, must have an input of digital signals of a particular size, normally 0 to 5 V. The output from the CPU is digital, normally 0 to 5 V. Thus there is generally a need to manipulate input and output signals so that they are in the required form. esInput units an The terms sourcing and sinking are used to describe the way in which d.c devices are connected to a PLC. With sourcing, using the conventional current flow direction as from positive to negative, an input device receives current from the input module, i.e. the input module is the source of the current. If the current flows from the output module to an output load then the output module is referred to as sourcing With sinking, using the conventional current flow direction as from positive to negative, an input device supplies current to the input module, i.e. the input module is the sink for the current If the current flows to the output module from an niitniit nad than tha niitniit madiilea icSourcing and Sinking an. — Input Input module module - +4 Input a) device (b) - 4 Input Input Input device | module module - 4 (a) (b) Output loadD.C input unit rs LED indicator VW of input soa Optoisolator [| intemal PL voltage Signal to PLC CPU W Voltage divider circuitA.C Input Unit|| The figures in previous slides show the basic input unit circuits for discrete and digital d.c. and discrete a.c. inputs. Optoisolators are used to provide protection. With the a.c. input unit, a rectifier bridge network is used to rectify the a.c. so that the resulting d.c. signal can provide the signal for use by the optoisolator to give the input signals to the CPU of the PLC. “Individual status lights are provided for each input to indicate when the input device is providing a signal. | Analogue signals can be inputted to a PLC if the input channelis able to convert the signal to a digital signal using an analogue-to-digital converter. With a rac mounted system this may be achieved by mounting a suitable analogue input card in the rack.So that one analogue card is not required for each analogue input, multiplexing is generally used see the figure below Inputs Multi- Selected Channel selection signal& ef Analogue} Analogue- to-digital (a) Wn Digital 0000 0010 0000 0001 0000 0000 (b Analogue input“Fig (a) in previous slide illustrates the function of an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). A single analogue input signal gives rise to on-off output signals along perhaps eight separate wires. The eight signals then constitute the so-termed digital word corresponding to the analogue input signal level. With such an 8-bit converter there are 2’8 = 256 different digital values possible; these are 0000 0000 to 1111 1111, i.e. 0 to 255. "The digital output goes up in steps Fig(b) and the analogue voltages required to produce each digital output are termed quantisation levels| The analogue voltage has to change by the difference in analogue voltage between successive levels if the binary output is to change. The term resolution is used for the smallest change in analogue voltage which will give rise to a change in one bit in the digital output. With an 8-bit ADC if, say, the full-scale analogue input signal varies between 0 and 10 V then a step of one digital bit involves an analogue input change of 10/255 V or about 0.04 V. | This means that a change of 0.03 V in the input will produce no change in the digital output. The number of its in the output from an analogue-to-digital converter thus determines the resolution, and hence accuracy, possible. If a 10-bit ADC is used then 210 = 1024 different digital values are possible and, for the full-scale analogue input of 0 to 10 V, a step of one digital bit involves an analogue input change of 10/1023 V or about 0.01 V. ‘| In general, the resolution of an n-bit ADC is 1/(2‘n - 1).Analogue-to-digital conversion for an 8-bit converter when the analogue input is in the range 0 to 10 V: Analogue input (V) _—_—Diigital output (V) 0.00 0000 0000 0.04 0000 0001 0.08 0000 0010 0.12 0000 0011 0.16 0000 0100 0.20 0000 0101 0.24 0000 0110 0.28 0000 0111 0.32 0000 1000 etc.Output units q With a PLC output unit, when it provides the current for the output [Link] a below said to be sourcing and when the output device provides the current to the output unit it is said to be sinking. Fig. b Quite often, sinking input units are used for interfacing with electronic equipment and sourcing output units for interfacing with solenoids.Output units: (a)sourcing (b) sinking a Load Load - + () 0)a ‘| Output units can be relay, transistor or triac. Figures below shows the basic form of a relay output unit, transistor output unit and that of a triac output unit.Relay output module Ta ‘Output signal LED PLC Fuse og Optoisolator RelayTransistor o/p unit current sinking aTransistor o/p unit current sourcing a Optocoupler poccmo- eHTriac output unitSS ‘| Analogue outputs are frequently required and can be provided by digital-to-analogue converters (DACs) at the output channel. The input to the converter is a sequence of bits with each bit along a parallel line as shown on next slide.Digtalto- mnaiogue converter BEneesence =‘Abit inthe 0 line gives rise to a certain size output pulse. A bit in the 1 line gives rise to an output pulse of twice the size of the O line pulse. A bit in the 2 line gives rise to an output pulse of twice the size of the line pulse. A bit in the 3 line gives rise to an output pulse of twice the size of the 2 line pulse, and so on. ‘When the digital input changes, the analogue output changes in a stepped manner, the voltage changing by the voltage changes associated with each bit. For example, if we have an 8-bit converter then the output is made up of voltage values of 2*8 = 256 analogue steps. Suppose the output range is set to 10 V d.c. One bit then gives a change of 10/255 V or about 0.04 V.Signal Conditioning o When connecting sensors which generate digital or discrete signals to an input unit, care has to be taken to ensure that voltage levels match. However, many sensors generate analogue signals. In order to avoid having a multiplicity of analogue input channels to cope with the wide diversity of analogue signals that can be generated by sensors, external signal conditioning is often used to bring analogue signals to a common range and so allow a standard form of analogue input channel to be used.SS | Acommon standard that is used (Fig. below) is to convert analogue signals to a current in the range 4 to 20 mA and thus to a voltage by passing it through a 250 0 resistance to give a1 to 5 V input signal. \ Thus, for example, a sensor used to monitor liquid level in the height range 0 to 1m would have the 0 level represented by 4 mA and the 1 m represented by 20 mA.Standard analogue signal 4to 20 mA 250 Q 1tosvCan be used to requce a voltage from =m a sensor to the required level; = the output voltage level Vout is: Vou = Rs ith" R, My Ry Moaa ‘| Amplifiers can be used to increase the voltage level; Figure shows the basic form of the circuits that might be used with a 741 operational amplifier with (a) being an inverting amplifier and (b) a non-inverting ‘| amplifier. With the inverting amplifier the output Vout is: R> Vout =— Vi out Ri m and with the non-inverting amplifier: Vout = i Vn@) R2 + ‘out + —v +SS Often a differential amplifier is needed to amplify the difference between two input voltages. Such is the case when a sensor, e.g. a strain gauge, is connected ina Wheatstone bridge and the output is the difference between two voltages ora thermocouple where the voltage difference between the hot and cold junctions is required. ‘Figure shows ~ operational arr Vout = x 2 (V2 —Vi) rpose. The output vol{1% Dire amor pci As an illustration of the use of signal conditioning, Figure on previous slide shows the arrangement that might be used for a strain gauge sensor. The sensor is connected in a Wheatstone bridge and the out-of-balance potential difference amplified by a differential amplifier before being fed via an analogue-to-digital converter unit which is part of the analogue input port of the PLC.Serial and Parallel Communications a Bits 76543210 — @ (0) Bits 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Voy‘| Serial communication is when data is transmitted one bit at a time (Figure (a)). Thus if an 8-bit word is to be transmitted, the eight bits are transmitted one at a time in sequence along a cable. This means that a data word has to be separated into its constituent bits for transmission and then reassembled into the word when received. ‘| Parallel communication is when all the constituent bits of a word are simultaneously transmitted along parallel cables (Figure (b)). This allows data to be transmitted over short distances at high speeds.“Serial communication is used for transmitting data over long distances. It is much cheaper to run, for serial communication, a single core cable over a long distance than the multicore cables that would be needed for parallel communication ‘Parallel communication might be used when connecting laboratory instruments to the system. However, internally, PLCs work, for speed, with parallel communications. Thus, circuits called UARTS (universal asynchronous receivers— transmitters) have to be used at input/output ports to converts serial communications signals to parallel.Serial standards a Requirements for serial communication 1. Determine the voltage levels to be used for signals, i.e. what signal represents a 0 and what represents a 1. 2. What the bit patterns being transmitted mean and how the message is built up. A sequence of words are being sent along the same cable and it is necessary to determine when one word starts and finishes and the next word starts. 3. The speed at which the bit pattern is to be sent, i.e. the number of bits per second. 4. Synchronization of the clocks at each end.SS 5. Protocols, or flow controls, to enable such information as ‘able to receive data’ or ‘not ready to receive data’. This is commonly done by using two extra signal wires (termed handshake wires), one to tell the receiver that the transmitter is ready to send the data and the other to tell the transmitter that the receiver is ready to receive data. 6. Error-checking to enable a bit pattern to be checked to determine if corruption of the data has occurred during transmissionSS ‘| The most common standard serial communications interface used is the RS232. Connections are made via 25-pin D-type connectors (see the figure on next slide). With usually, though not always, a male plug on cables and a female socket on the equipment. Not all the pins are used in every application.D TYPE CONNECTOR O o000000000000 0 Oo00000000000 Pins 14 to 24a The minimum requirements are: Pin 1: Ground connection to the frame of chassis Pin 2: Serial transmitted data (output data pin) Pin 3: Serial received data (input data pin) Pin 7: Signal ground which acts as a common signal return path A configuration that is widely used with interfaces involving computers is: Pin 1: Ground connection to the frame of chassis Pin 2: Serial transmitted data (output data pin) Pin 3: Serial received data (input data pin) Pin 4: Request to send Pin 5: Clear to send Pin 6: Data set ready Pin 7: Signal ground which acts as a common signal return path Pin 20: Data terminal readya ‘| The signals sent through pins 4, 5, 6 and 20 are used to check that the receiving end is ready to receive a signal, the transmitting end is ready to send and the data is ready to be sent. With RS232, a1 bit is represented by a voltage between -5 and -25 V, normally -12 V, and a0 by a voltage between +5 and +25 V, normally +12 V.a “The term baud rate is used to describe the transmission rate, it being approximately the number of bits transmitted or received per second. ) However, not all the bits transmitted can be used for data, some have to be used to indicate the start and stop of a serial piece of data, these often being termed flags, and as a check as to whether the data has been corrupted during transmissionRS232 signal levels q The fig. below shows the type of signal that might be sent with RS232. The parity bit is added to check whether corruption has occurred, with even parity a 1 being added to make the number of 1s an even number. To send seven bits of data, eleven bits may be n Start bit Data Parity bit +> \ 4 bit 01101000 14—SePbt voltage v 1 level‘| The signals sent through pins 4, 5, 6 and 20 are used to check that the receiving end is ready to receive a signal, the transmitting end is ready to ‘| send and the data is ready to be sent. With RS232, a 1 bit is represented ‘| by a voltage between -5 and -25 V, normally -12 V, and a0 by a voltage between +5 and +25 V, normally +12 V.Ladder and functional block programming = q Programming can be made even easier by the use of the so-called high level languages, e.g. C, BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN,COBOL These use pre-packaged functions, represented by simple words or symbols descriptive of the function concerned. For example, with C language the symbol & is used for the logic AND operation. However, the use of these methods to write programs requires some skill in programming and PLCs are intended to be used by engineers without any great knowledge of programming, hence ladder diagram programming was developed. This is a means of writing programs which can then be converted into machine code by some software for use by the PLC microprocessor.a ‘| This chapter is an introduction to the programming of a PLC using ladder diagrams and functional block diagrams, Here we are concerned with the basic techniques involved in developing ladder and function block programs to represent basic switching operations, involving the logic functions of AND, OR, Exclusive OR, NAND and NOR, and latching.PLC ladder programming ‘Writing a program is then equivalent to drawing a switching circuit. The ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as horizontal lines, i.e. the rungs of the ladder, between these two verticals. a). The vertical lines of the diagram represent the power rails between which circuits are connected. The power flow is taken to be from the left-hand vertical across a rung. ‘| b). Each rung on the ladder defines one operation in the control process. " ¢). A ladder diagram is read from left to right and from top to bottom. See on the next fig.Power flow Left power rail —> Right power rail Rung 1 Rung 2 Rung 3 Rung 4 END End rung Note:The end rung might be indicated by a block with the word END or RET for return, since the program prompily returns to its beginningd). Each rung must start with an input or inputs and must end with at least one output. e). Electrical devices are shown in their normal condition. Thus a switch which is normally open until some object closes it, is shown as open on the ladder diagram. A switch that is normally closed is shown closed. ‘| f). A particular device can appear in more than one rung of a ladder. For example, we might have a relay which switches on one or more devices. The same letters and/or numbers are used to label the device in each situation.yl i g). The inputs and outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation used depending on the PLC manufacturer. Note: Some slight variations occur between the symbols when used in semi-graphic form and when in full graphic. Note that inputs are represented by different symbols representing normally open or normally closed contactsSome symbol in semi and full graphics = rormatyopencanaes maa] fe 4 Normally closed contact ---|/|--- —/|— Output coil: if the power flow ---( )--- —{ }E to it is on then the coil state is onq In drawing ladder diagrams the names of the associated variable or addresses of each element are appended to its symbol. Thus Figures below shows how the ladder diagram would appear using (a) Mitsubishi, (b) Siemens, (c) Allen-Bradley, (d) Telemecanique notations for the addresses. Thus Figure (a) indicates that this rung of the ladder program has an input from address X400 and an output to address Y430. When wiring up the inputs and outputs to the PLC, the relevant ones must be connected to the input and output terminals with these addresses.