PM SHRI KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA NO.

2 AFS
TAMBARAM, CHENNAI.

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

TOPIC: BIOLOGICAL POLLINATORS

SESSION: 2025 – 2026

Submitted to, Submitted by,

Mrs. S. SANTHA JAYA KARTHIK. A
PGT in Biology
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Jaya Karthik. A is a student of

class XII – ‘B’, roll no 12228 has successfully
completed the research on the below mentioned project
under the guidance of Mrs. S. Santha (PGT in Biology)
during the year 2025 –2026 in partial fulfilment of
biology practical examination of central board of
secondary education (CBSE).

PRINCIPAL
Mr. S Arumugam

(INTERNAL EXAMINER) (EXTERNAL EXAMINER)

 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project work entitled

“ Biological Pollinators” submitted to the “PM

SHRI KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA NO.2 AFS

TAMBARAM SCHOOL”, is a record of original

work done by me except of the experiments, which are

duly acknowledged, under the guidance of my subject

teacher Mrs. S. Santha, PGT in Biology.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to

the principal Mr. S. Arumugam for his encouragement and

for all the facilities he provided for this project work. I

sincerely appreciate his magnanimity by taking me into his

fold for which I shall remain indebted to him. I extend my

heartly thanks to Mrs. S. Santha (PGT Biology), biology

teacher who guided me to the successful completion of this

project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of

gratitude for her invaluable guidance, constant

encouragement, immense motivation, which has sustained

my efforts at all the stages of this project work.

SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATE

 CONTENT

S. No INDEX Page. No

1 Introduction 1

2 Entomophily 3

3 Chiropterophily 8

4 Ornithophily 9

5 Zoophily 11

6 Conservation of Pollinators 13

7 Conclusion 15

8 Bibliography 15
 Introduction

What are Biological Pollinators?

Biological Pollinator, is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a
flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of
the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains.
Animals play a crucial role in plant pollination as they account for about 75-90%.
Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating agents. Bees,
butterfly, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds like sun birds and humming birds
and bats are the common pollinating agents. Larger animals like some primates
like lemur, arboreal rodents, or even reptiles like gecko lizards and garden lizards
have also been reported as pollinators in some species, like Lemur in Ravenala
plant.

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Biotic Agents of Pollination and Types of Pollinators

There are many animal and insect pollinators around the world. They visit flowers
to drink nectar or feed off of pollen and transport pollen grains as they move from
spot to spot. Thus, both the animal/insect and the plant get benefitted. Depending
on the features of the plant, the surroundings/ecosystem around the plant and the
pollinators available, plants choose different types of Biotic Pollination modes.
Some examples of plants using different types of pollinators are:

[Link] Name of The Agent Term Used Examples of Pollinated

Flowers

1. Insects Entomophily Yucca, Salvia, Calotropis,

Ficus, Centaurea, Aristolochia

2. Bird Ornithophily Bombax, Callistemon

3. Bat Chiropterophily Anthocephalus, Adansonia

4. Snails Malacophily Arisaema

5. Snakes Ophiophily Santalum, Michelia

*These are the Common Pollinators

Distribution of Pollinators

Melittophilous (Bees) Ornithophily Cantharophilous (Beetles)

Psychophilous (Butterflies) Myiophilous (Flies) Phalenophilous (Moths)
Chiropterophilous (Bats) Other Biotic Agents Abiotic Agents

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 Entomophily

Insects as Pollinating Agents

These are the most common biotic agents of pollination. They account for about
85% of plant pollination. Insects tend to feed on the nectar of flowers, and during
this process pollen grains gets attached to their body, and when they go another
flower of same species the pollen gets deposited in the stigma of the carpel. Thus,
carrying out the process of Pollination.

Bees are the most common insect which acts as a pollinating agent. Other insect
pollinators are butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths.

Characteristic Features of Flowers Pollinated by Insects

 Majority of insect pollinated flowers are large sized.

 Small sized flowers are clustered into an inflorescence.
 Majority of them are colourful with bright colours to attract insects.
 They are usually very fragrant, except those pollinated be beetles and flies.
 Foul-odoured flowers if pollinated by flies and beetles.
 Nectaries are present, which produce nectar in flowers which is a reward for
the pollinator.
 Sticky pollen grains are observed so as to stick to the body of insects.

Floral Rewards for Insects

 Nectar: Sweet smelling food for insects produced by plants.

 Pollen: Insects tend to feed on Pollen grains as well, which is rich in
nutrients.
 Safe place to lay eggs.

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Like Amorphophallus which is a flower about 6 feet in height, which provides a
safe place to lay eggs for moths. Another example is Yucca Plant which provides a
safe place to lay eggs for Pronuba moth. Milkweed, Mallow etc., provide a safe
place for butterflies to lay eggs.

Relationship between Yucca Plant and Pronuba Moth

Pronuba Moth lays its eggs in the ovary of yucca plant and its flowers get
pollinated by the moth. Both organisms cannot complete their life cycle without
each other. The moth deposits its eggs in the locule of the ovary and the flower, in
turn, gets pollinated by the moth. The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs as
seeds start developing.

Features of Plants pollinated by Moths:

 Are night-blooming.
 Are white or light colored.

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  Are highly fragrant.
 Produce nectar.
 Are often long and narrow, without landing platforms.
 Have petals that are sometimes fringed.

Pollinating Agent: Bees

The most recognized pollinators are the

various species of bees, which are plainly
adapted to pollination. India has more than
700 described species of bees. Bees typically
are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge.
Both features help pollen grains adhere to
their bodies, but they also have specialized
pollen-carrying structures; in most bees, this
takes the form of a structure known as the
scopa, which is on the hind legs of most bees,
and/or the lower abdomen, made up of thick,
plumose setae. Honey bees, bumblebees, and
their relatives do not have a scopa, but the
hind leg is modified into a structure called the
corbicula (also known as the pollen basket).

Most bees gather nectar, a concentrated energy source, and pollen, which is high
protein food, to nurture their young, and transfer some among the flowers as they
are working. Thus, pollinating plants.

Features of Plants pollinated by Bees:

 Are often brightly colored, usually yellows or blues.
 May have nectar guides and/or fragrance.
 Are commonly hermaphroditic.
 Provide a landing platform.

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  Have a flower form that may be well adapted to a specific type or species of
bee.

*Diagram showing Pollination by Bees

Pollinating Agent: Butterflies

Butterflies are majestic insects which feed on the nectar of flowers. India has
approximately 1600 species of Butterflies. They are not major pollinators, but they
do contribute in pollination of important plants.

Features of Plants pollinated by Butterflies:

 Are conspicuously coloured, often red, pink, or purple
 Have flowers or inflorescences that provide a landing platform
 Provide nectar, often in a deep spur
 May be fragrant

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Pollinating Agent: Beetles

Beetles are important, yet often overlooked pollinators that have played a crucial
role in plant pollination since ancient times. Beetles are vital for ecosystem
sustainability and the pollination of many economically important crops and
wildflowers. Flowers attract beetles with specific odours, including sweet, spicy, or
fermented smells. Mainly the flowers are foul odoured.

Features of Plants pollinated by Beetles:

 Are red or brown
 Are open in structure
 Smell strongly of rotting flesh
 May generate heat

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Pollen/Nectar Robbers

Insects which consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination are
called Nectar/Pollen Robbers.
Examples: Queens of Bombus affinis perforate Aquilegia spurs and steel nectar.

Chiropterophily

Bats are the most important mammals to pollinate plants. Bats pollinate tropical
flowers like Adansonia and Anthocephalus, visiting to take nectar or feed on fruits.
And there are approximately 530 species of plants depending on bats for
pollination. Bats are perfectly adapted to pollinate plants, and they provide
extensive value to the agricultural industry. Not only pollination, but bats help in
pest control and seed dispersal. Thus, bats act as natural gardeners.

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In India usually night blooming species like Mahua (Madhuca latifolia), Silk
Cotton tree (Ceiba pentandra), and durian are pollinated by bats. Some common
species of bat pollinators in India are: Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus giganteus) and
the Indian short-nosed fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx). Bats play a crucial role in the
regeneration of forests by pollination and seed dispersal and the health of local
ecosystems in India.

Features of Plants pollinated by Bats:

 Are night-blooming.
 Are drab in colour.
 Have copious nectar and pollen.
 Are sturdy and large.
 May have a rancid or urinelike smell.
 Have flowers that are pendulous or borne on the main trunk or big limbs of a
tree.

Ornithophily

Ornithophily, is the process where birds transfer pollen between flowers to

facilitate plant reproduction. Birds, particularly hummingbirds, honeyeaters and
sunbirds also accomplish much pollination, especially of deep-throated flowers.
This process is common in tropical regions and high-altitude areas where birds are
abundant pollinators. Usually, the flowers pollinated by birds are tube like,
allowing their beak to reach deep into the flower for nectar. As birds feed, pollen
adheres to their heads, necks, and backs, which they then transfer to other flowers,
facilitating plant reproduction and growth.

Bird pollination in India is a significant ecological process involving around 60

bird species pollinating over 90 plant species, particularly in tropical regions where
birds like sunbirds are attracted to nectar-rich flowers. In India, though we don’t
have hummingbirds, a similar group — and a marvellous example of convergent
evolution (where similar characteristics are evolved in unrelated species due to

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similar habits or habitats) — are sunbirds. India is home to 13 species of sunbirds,
and 2 species of spiderhunters, all of which are in the Nectariniidae family. These
birds stand out from other species with their dazzling, iridescent colouration, tiny
size, and disproportionately long beaks.

Sometimes, birds act as Nectar Robbers and usually birds other than Sunbirds, eat
the flower itself before they mature for nectar.

Features of Plants pollinated by Birds:

 Are often red.
 Have copious nectar.
 Are devoid of smell.
 Are tubular with a wide mouth.
 Have sticky pollen that often forms clumps or chains.
 May be pendulous (for hummingbirds) or erect with a landing platform (for
other birds).

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 Zoophily

Zoophily, or zoogamy, is a form of pollination whereby pollen is transferred by

animals, usually by invertebrates but in some cases vertebrates. Zoophilous species
frequently have evolved mechanisms to make themselves more appealing to the
particular type of pollinator, e.g. brightly coloured or scented flowers, nectar, and
appealing shapes and patterns. These plant-animal relationships are often mutually
beneficial because of the food source provided in exchange for pollination.

Non-flying mammals (i.e. all mammals except bats) have been found to feed on the
nectar of several species of plant. This is known as Therophily. Though some of
these mammals are pollinators, others do not carry or transfer enough pollen to be
considered pollinators. The group of non-flying pollinators is composed of
marsupials, lemurs, rodents, shrews, and elephant shrews. As of 1997 studies have
documented non-flying mammal pollination involving at least 59 species of
mammal distributed among 19 families and six orders. As of 1997, there were 85
species of plants from 43 genera and 19 families which were visited by these
mammals. In many cases, a plant species is visited by a range of mammals.

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In India, mammal pollinator hotspots are restricted to the south of the Western
Ghats which includes places such as Kollam and Pathanamthitta in Kerala and
Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu. About 85 birds and mammal species, which is about
five percent of the total population of the bird and mammal species in India, as
pollinators.

Neglected Pollinators

Vertebrate pollinators are typically ignored in studies examining the importance of

pollinators in general. Historically, pollination research has focused on insects
because they are the most common pollinators, often perceived as the primary
pollinators for most flowering plants, leading to a bias in research priorities. This
perception has been reinforced by their significant role in agricultural pollination,
which has direct economic implications.
In contrast, vertebrates are very important in the sub-tropics, where they pollinate a
wide diversity of ecologically and economically important plants. Vertebrate

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pollinators such as birds and bats are also typically more widely dispersed and
mobile and hence, require large areas of land to be protected.

Conservation of Pollinators

Pollinators provide a key ecosystem service vital to the maintenance of both wild
and agricultural plant communities. Today pollinators are considered to be in a
state of decline. Many pollinator populations are in decline and this decline is
attributed most severely to a loss in feeding and nesting habitats. Declines in the
health and population of pollinators pose what could be a significant threat to the
integrity of biodiversity, to global food webs, and to human health. At least 80% of
our world's crop species require pollination to set seed. An estimated one out of
every three bites of food come to us through the work of animal pollinators. The
quality of pollinator service has declined over time and this had led to concerns
that pollination will be less resistant to extinction in the future.
A 2022 study concludes that the decline of pollinator populations is responsible for
500,000 early human deaths per year by reducing the supply of healthy foods. A
decline of pollinators has caused 3–5% loss of fruits, vegetables and nuts. Lower
consumption of these healthy foods translates to 1% of all deaths, according to the
authors.

Reasons for Decline of Pollinators

 Pollution.
 Pesticide and insecticide usage.
 Global warming.
 Loss of Habitat and Ecosystems.
 Misuse of Chemicals.
 Decreasing area for the growth and development of pollinators.
 Urbanisation.

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  Spread of diseases and parasites.
 Introduction of invasive species which complete with native pollinators for
food and nesting area.
 Nutritional stress, i.e., loss in the variety of food source.
 Loss of functional and genetic diversity.
 Plant extinction etc.

Methods to Conserve Pollinators

Pollinators need help, if everyone – home owners, local governments, national

governments, and private industry – made the effort we could change the future for
pollinators and secure our own, by following these small steps:

 Make room for pollinators on your land, by planting flowering plants and
area for them to nest.
 Plant the right plant: Research has shown that local native pollinators prefer
local native plants.
 Spread the word about the importance of pollinators.
 Support Farmers and Beekeepers by buying local honey and locally
produced organic foods.
 By restoring wild pollinators’ natural habitat and maintaining Earth's
biodiversity.
 Avoid using insecticides, pesticides and any other form of chemicals in
farming.
 Keep a clean and pollution free surrounding etc.

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 Conclusion

Pollination is essential to the perpetuation of the vast majority of the world’s wild
plants—and thus the perpetuation of nearly all terrestrial ecosystems—as well as to
the production of most of the fruit and seed crops that feed humanity. The
importance of this seemingly simple movement of sperm-laden pollen to female
parts for fertilization cannot be overstated. Thus, the biological process of
pollination by Biological Pollinators is a crucial step in the sexual reproduction of
flowering plants, and it is all thanks to Biological Pollinators, who made this
possible.

Bibliography

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mammal-bird-pollinators/
 NCERT Class 12th Biology Textbook

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