SAMPLE RRL

Determinants of National Achievement Test Performance of Central

Review of Related Literature

The National Achievement Test is a test that the Department of Education administers

to public and private schools across the country, specifically to students in Grades 6, 10, and

12, in order to evaluate the curriculum's efficacy and to monitor the quality of basic education

in the Philippines. DepEd uses the National Achievement Test results to assess students'

performance in five major subject areas—math, science, English, Araling Panlipunan, and

Filipino—as well as their strengths and weaknesses (Philippines: The National Achievement

Test, n.d.). Following the collection of results, DepEd takes the required activities to create a

curriculum that will offer all Filipino students a high-quality education.

Students Factors

Communication Skills

In an educational context, teachers and students share the same objective learning, and

each needs the other in order to achieve this objective. Among the variables impacting the

process of instruction, communication remains a very important one. Teacher communicative

behaviors (Myers, Martin & Knapp, 2005), his/her immediacy (non-verbal immediacy –

behaviors such as smiling, gesturing, eye contact or relaxed body language; verbal immediacy

– calling the students by name, using humor and raising questions that encourage students to

talk and ask for different viewpoints, praise) (Nasser, 2014) or perceived communicator style,

are variables that influence motivation, cognitive and affective learning (Nasser, 2014; Chory

& McCroskey, 1999), positive student evaluations, perceived teacher competence,

trustworthiness and caring (Nasser, 2014). The degree of develop ment of social and

communication skills and the students’ perception of these, as well as their ability to

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continuously develop these along the school years, are associated both with their interpersonal

and their academic success (McCroskey, Booth-Butterfield & Payne, 1989). Also, numerous

research studies emphasize the importance of a positive teacher-student relationship, and its

connection to learning and academic performance (Aylor, 2003; Dobransky & Frymier, 2004;

Tobbell & O’Donnell, 2013), or the relationship between the students’ willingness to

communicate and explore new relational opportunities (Cho, Geri, Davidson & Ingraffea,

2007) and committing to a greater extent to the initiative to interact with teachers – by asking

more questions and asking for more information (Nurmi, 2012).

Learning and Innovation Skills

21st century learning reform is based on the concept that skill and knowledge in the

21st century does not only focus on core subjects (NCREL and the Metiri Group, 2003; LEAP,

2007; P21, 2015). The most important life skills and working skills in the 21st century are

learning and innovation skills, creative thinking, new innovation interests, critical thinking,

problem-solving learning, explicit communication, working participation, and co-working

appreciation (Marien, 2002; Loveless, Burton, & Turvey, 2006; Newton, 2013; Dwyer, Hogan,

& Stewart, 2014; O’Flaherty & Phillips, 2015; Pásztor, Molnár, & Csapó, 2015; Jena, 2015).

All of these skills are important for those learning software engineering in knowledge

development, and it is necessary to improve learning procedures in order to get in line with the

present age. The learning skills of students are flexible, creative, and challenging. As students

learn how to solve problem from errors, the experiences gained for living in the 21st century

are high-quality. In conclusion, learning management, which promotes students to “learn how

to learn”, is required in order to break the limitation of the traditional classroom, where learning

are passive. Lecturers have changed their paradigm for the learning management of active

learners and self-learners. Teachers act as advisers. Learners are able to use technology as a

tool to seek knowledge and create their work through participatory learning. On passing the

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particular course, learners gain originality and practical skills. Knowledge from experience can

be created by oneself.

In addition, creative activities lead to innovation while creativity is the art of producing

new ideas, approach or action, innovation is the process of both generating and applying such

creative ideas and converting them into novel, useful and viable products, services and business

practices. Besides that, according to Trilling and Faded (2009), to be an effective in this new

paradigm requires a move from teacher instruction requires a move from teacher-directed to

student – centered learning, from direct teacher instruction to interactive exchange with and

among students, from teaching context knowledge to equipping students with the relevant

skills, and from teaching basic contents to problem solving processes (Kivunja, C.2014). It

calls for a move away from time- slotted schedules to completion of tasks on – demand, from

teaching that applies a one-size-fits-all approach to all students to one that provides

personalized scaffolding for learners, from competitive learning to collaborative learning, from

classroom tied contexts to foot-loose global learning networks, from textbook based data to

web-based sources, from summative to formative assessment of students’ performance, and

from learning at school to learning throughout life (Kivinja,2014).

Life and Career Skills

A life skill is a psychological skill concerning new experiences in life. It is simply said

as the emotional and social quotient of oneself that helps in learning for properly adapting

behavior, analyzing and considering information for decision-making purposes, as well as for

communicating with others effectively (United Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF], 2020;

World Health Organization [WHO], 1999). Having life skills makes individuals know how to

take care of themselves physically, emotionally, and mentally, which will result in a happy

living condition and being able to live their lives without being a burden to society. It also

includes preparation for future adaptation (OBEC, 2012; Tantipiwatanaskul et al., 2012). Life

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skills are therefore used to develop children and youth in a global society, including Thailand

to help them wisely make thinking critically, adapt, decisions making, communicate emotion,

and stress management (Department of Mental Health, Ministry of Public Health, 2016). As

the world is facing rapid changes in socials, cultures, politics, economics, and technology, the

term “life skills” is not best suited for the changes as there is a high level of competitiveness in

the workforce market. As a result, educational institutions have started to initiate student

development programs to encourage students to be prepared and equipped with career skills.

The term “life skills” was replaced by “life and career skills” to cover both attributes and to

make students ready for their living and their profession in this century. Consequently, they

can live on their own, work independently and collaboratively with others, and understand and

respect the diversity of people (Knowlton, 2013; Minnesota State Colleges and Universities,

2021). Moreover, having knowledge and thinking skills are most important for living in the

complexity of this era as individuals can make use of them amid the overwhelming and

competitiveness of information and data (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). as well as

to help them able be decisive, creative, critical, which are forming them to be active citizens

and, most importantly, living their best lives (Drew, 2016; Herzing University, 2021).

Information, Media and Technology Skills

As already indicated, improving student performance depends on the students’ ability

to use ICT interactively. A set of economic studies, which try to identify and measure the digital

skills needed to improve student performance (Youssef, 2015) identify three levels of digital

skills: instrumental, informational, and strategic. Instrumental skills are the minimum skill

levels required to use a computer terminal. Information skills relate to the ability to decode,

sort and understand the meaning of information, prioritize it, cross-reference its sources and

store it. The acquisition of these skills is more difficult; some studies show that a high

proportion of the population is unable to carry out effective research on the Internet (Du, J.T,

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et. al, 2011). Strategic skills refer to the skills needed to use digital tools and digital content to

improve social capital, work opportunities and learning opportunities. The acquisition of these

skills requires the individual ability to cooperate, share and coordinate online activities. In

general, digital skills influence the intensity of ICT use, and vice versa. It is generally accepted

that the effects of ICTs on student performance depend on the intensity of their use; low and

sporadic use does not improve academic performance (Magalhães, P, 2020). However,

intensive use for educational purposes (searching for bibliographical references, using

translation software, engaging in forums and chats, etc.) stimulates involvement in their studies

and results in improved skills and performance. There is a threshold to the development of

digital skills. Low-level use of ICT does not result in the exploration of sophisticated

functionalities related to the applications. This type of use is related mainly to solving technical

problems and requires only basic skills (level 1 digital skills). Building effective information

skills takes time (level 2 digital skills), while more intensive use allows the development of the

strategic skills required to achieve particular objectives, such as increased knowledge (level 3

digital skills). Intensive use also increases self-learning skills. Some authors highlight that the

forms of learning that result from the intensive use of the Internet are believed to be the origins

of stronger involvement of students in their work (Dahmani, M, 2009). They feel more inclined

to study when assisted by educational resources available on the Internet or supported by ICTs.

Thus, these technologies promote self learning and increase student performance by reducing

aversion to work.

In general, ICT investments have improved the availability of digital resources and the

quality of the interactions between teachers and students or among students. ICTs are

responsible for students’ greater involvement in their work and self-learning, both individually

and collectively. However, investment in ICTs will only be effective if accompanied by digital

skill acquisition strategies. In this context, the adoption by universities of certification schemes,

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such as the International Computer Driver License (ICDL) or the European Computer Driving

License (ECDL), which are awarded based on users’ computer skills according to international

or European standards, would encourage students and teachers to improve their digital literacy

in terms of ICT skills, pedagogical skills and curriculum design.

Teacher Factors

In today’s very competitive era, where students become more knowledgeable and

update with the latest innovations, teachers’ qualifications have become desirable targets of

education reform as they show positive effects on academic performance. The profile of

teachers in this particular study refers to variables such as educational qualification,

professional growth and average class size (Guiaselon, et. al, 2023).

Educational Qualification

Another problem is that the competence of economic teachers, especially pedagogic,

and professional competencies are still low. It can see from the teacher competency test results.

Accor ding to the head of human resources development (Gultom & Silitonga, 2012, p. 1).

Teachers’ professional qualification is related to the quality of teaching by

professionally competent teachers. The outcomes of teachers’ work reflects his teaching

effectiveness. A good deal of teaching is not subject to empirical inquiring or correlates of

students’ achievement. Good teaching and learning involves values, experiences, insights,

imagination and appreciation, the stuff that cannot be easily observed or measured (Aquino,

2000). The teachers directly influence the students in teaching-learning process. However,

there are factors that relate to the teachers’ qualification like their experiences, highest

educational attainment, training attended and method of teaching used. Teaching as a process

has always been exposed to evaluation to see whether the outcome has been reached. The

teacher factor in learning is correlated to his appeal, competence, delivery and effectiveness in

performance of the process (Costes, 2007).

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 According to Goodman (2013) debating the issue of the necessity for teaching

qualifications for individuals employed by schools as teachers is still existing that even the

government is divided over whether unqualified individuals should be allowed to teach in state-

funded schools. Mr. Clegg (2010) is of the opinion that school should employ only qualified

teachers to ensure “basic quality standard”. However, Mr. Gove (2011) disagrees, stating that

state maintained schools should be able to “hire brilliant teachers who have not got qualified

teachers status-and have the same advantage that private schools have to bring in great linguist,

computer scientist, engineers and other specialist to inspire their pupils”. On the contrary, Dr.

Seldon (2010) compares teaching to parenting, where qualifications are not needed, and

believes that Mr. Clegg and others, who argue for teachers to be qualified, are misguided

regarding the teachers’ role who, he says, is “much more akin to that of a parent, yet, no one is

suggesting parents go off for a university course to qualify as a parent”. Seldon’s claim appears

logical but if teacher’s qualification is indeed to be viewed the way parents’ qualifications are

viewed, there is much to consider in defining what qualified teachers are and what makes a

qualified parent too.

Trainings

A training is a process to get the required skills for a particular subject. The training is

a valuable practice for the teachers to enhanced their teaching skills. A trained teacher has more

skills and techniques to be applied for the better academic achievements of learners (Ulla,

2018). A teacher having better teaching skills can also produce students’ interest in a particular

subject (Giovazolias et al., 2019). Many researchers including (Oliveira et al., 2019; Supriatna,

2015; Ulla, 2017) stated the importance of teachers training. The teacher’s training provides

the solutions of educational problems (Schütze et al., 2017).

In this modern age, the teacher’s training is an important requirement and essential

component for all the educational activites including conducive learning environment,

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curriculum development and implementation and assessment (Zulfiqar, 2016). A trained and

skilful teacher has more ability to teach the students and implement the various teaching

methods successfully (Saira et al., 2021). When teachers apply the various teaching methods

and techniques according to the acquired skills then students achieved higher academic results

and the interest of the student is also increased (Wuryaningsih et al., 2019). According to

Katabaro (2014, p. 187) the level of training has primarily influenced the formation of teacher

professional identity (TPI) in pedagogy, academic training, and practical experience as an

academician. Continuing professional development programs have had little impact because of

their sporadic occurrences.

Behroz-Sarcheshmeh et al. (2017) investigated in a study that the trained teachers have

better communication, teaching and critical thinking skills. They also concluded that students’

academic achievement and interest improve when a trained teacher apply the teaching methods

according to the classroom environment and situations. Özüdogru (2020) conducted a research

to check the responses to the questions raised by students from trained and untrained teachers.

The conclusion of the study indicated that the teachers who have done trainings responded the

students in a better way as compared to the untrained teachers.

Years of Service

Teaching experience thought to be more effective for student achievement. Hanushek,

Rivkin, and Kain (2005) also supported this concept that “Students taught by experienced

teachers perform better than students of inexperienced teachers” (p. 24). Darling-Hammond

(2000) found the relationship between teaching experience and student achievement that there

was no significant difference between the performance of students taught by teachers who had

less than five years and more than five years of experience.

Many studies have provided empirical evidence of the positive correlation between

teacher factor and students’ achievements. For instance, Vizeshfar & Torabizadeh (2018), and

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Adnot, Dee, Katz & Wyckoff (2017) showed than an effective teacher can alter students’

educational and thus economic outcomes. Analysis of literature revealed that the impact of

educators on students’ life and achievement vary widely from being a guide, a facilitator, a

model, a pedagogical leader, a source of knowledge, a friend and a confider (Khasanah &

Anggoro, 2022; Atchia and Chinapah, 2019b).