Vidyamandir Classes Ecosystem

Chapter-17-Organisms and Populations

Ecosystem
ECOSYSTEM : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Section-1
Ecosystem
 The term ecosystem was coined by Sir Arthur Tansley in 1935.
 The sum total of interaction between biotic and abiotic components which is capable of independent existence is
called as an Ecosystem.
 Ecosystems can be recognised as self-regulating and self-sustaining units of landscape.
Prof. Eugene P. Odum is recognized as the “father of ecosystem ecology”, His monumental book entitled Fundamentals
of Ecology revolutionized teaching of ecology world over.

Ecosystem
 Basic functional unit of ecology  Highest level of ecological interaction
 Stable interacting self regulating self sustaining system  Functional unit is population
In nature, two major categories of ecosystems may be distinguished:
1. Terrestrial 2. Aquatic
Forests, grasslands, and deserts are examples of terrestrial ecosystems.
The aquatic ecosystems can be either freshwater (ponds, lakes, streams), or salt-water (marine, estuaries) type. Human
activities may modify or convert natural ecosystems into anthropogenic or man-made ecosystems.

Artificial ecosystem
 Do not have self regulation  Have little diversity  Simple food chain
 High productivity  Little cycling of nutrients  Less stable
Examples - Agriculture ,Dams, Zoo , Plantations ,Aquaculture etc.
Ecosystem Components : An ecosystem has two basic components:
 Abiotic components comprise inorganic materials (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, CO2, water, etc.) and dead organic
matter etc. Abiotic substances are present in soil, water and air.
 Biotic components include producers , consumers and decomposers .Producers are the autotrophic (=self-nourishing),
generally chlorophyll-bearing organisms, which produce their own food (high energy organic compounds) by fixing
light energy in the presence of simple inorganic abiotic substances.
In terrestrial ecosystems, the autotrophs are usually rooted plants (herbs, shrubs and trees)
In deep acquatic ecosystems, floating microscopic plants called phytoplankton are the major autotrophs.
In shallow waters rooted plants, macrophytes, are the dominant producers.
Consumers or phagotrophs are heterotrophic organisms, mostly animals which generally ingest or swallow their food. A
consumer which derives nutrition by eating plants is called primary consumer or herbivore. The secondary consumer or
carnivore is an animal that devours the flesh of herbivore or other animals.
Decomposers or saprotrophs are other heterotrophic organisms, consisting mostly of bacteria and fungi which live on dead
organic matter or detritus.

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Integration of Ecosystems
 Ecosystems can generally be physically delineated. But sometimes, ecosystems integrate with each other.
 At a large, spatial scale, all ecosystems are interconnected by flow of energy and transfer of materials with the
neighbouring ecosystems, or even with distant ecosystems.
For example, leaves of riverbank trees dropping in river water represent transfer of energy and material from terrestrial to
acquatic ecosystem. Soil material may be eroded from a forest ecosystem and washed into the adjoining stream, or dust
blown from a desert ecosystem may deposit over another ecosystem located miles away.

Ecosystem has Structure and Functions

Structure : Important structural features are:
 Species composition and diversity  Physiognomy
 Stratification  Life cycle
 Ecological community  Abiotic materials
 Range of physical conditions
Physiognomy refers to the external appearance or “look” of the community. For instance, the high physiognomy of a forest
differs markedly from a low physiognomy of grassland.
Stratification depicts vertical layering of the vegetation.
 Different layers are occupied by different species. A well developed forest ecosystem exhibits a highly stratified
structure, consisting of several layers of vegetation. These layers include the canopy, the understory tree layer, the
shrub layer and the herb layer.
 Similarly, a pond community has surface dwellers and bottom dwellers.
 In aquatic ecosystems, stratification from surface to bottom is determined by light penetration, temperature profile and
oxygen profile.

Stratification
Vertical stratification leads to
 increase in number of species  efficient use of resources
Another way to depict the ecosystem structure is through food relationships of producers and consumers. Trophic (food)
structure of an ecosystem is based on the existence of several trophic levels in the ecosystem. The producers form the first
trophic level, herbivores the second, and carnivores constitute the third.
Trophic structure may be described in terms of the amount of living material, called standing crop, present in different
trophic levels at a given time. The standing crop is commonly expressed as the number or biomass of organisms per unit
area. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of either fresh or dry weight.
Dry weight is preferred to avoid variations in weight due to seasonal moisture differences in biomass.
The amount of nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium present in the soil at any given time, is referred to as
the standing state. The standing states of nutrients differ from one ecosystem to another.
Functions: Ecosystems show a variety of functions performed by the structural components.
The key functional aspects of the ecosystem are:
 Productivity and energy flow  Nutrient cycling  Energy flow
 Food chain / web  Biotin interrelationships  Homeostasis

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Productivity
The rate of biomass production is called productivity. Productivity in ecosystems is of two kinds,
 Primary  Secondary
Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.
 It is expressed in terms of weight (g-2) or energy (kcal m-2).
 The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
 Primary productivity refers to the rate at which sunlight is captured by producers for the synthesis of energy-rich
organic compounds through photosynthesis.
 Productivity is a rate function, and is expressed in terms of dry matter produced or energy captured per unit area of
land, per unit time. It is generally expressed in terms of g m-2 year–1, or kcal m–2 year–1.
The total organic matter (biomass) production is called gross primary production. However, while the energy capture
process is operating in the green tissues, these as well as other tissues are consuming photosynthates in respiration.
The balance energy or biomass remaining after meeting the requirement of respiration of producers is called net primary
productivity, as shown below.
Net productivity = Gross productivity – Respiration
The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.
Of this, despite occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans is only 55 billion tons. Rest of
course, is on land. The productivity of oceans is low.

Knowledge Enhancer
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs ( herbivores and harvesting /decomposers).
It is rate of Storage/ Biomass Accumulated
 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere annually .
 The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter.
In aquatic ecosystems, productivity is generally limited by light, which decreases with increasing water depth.
In deep oceans, nutrients often become limiting for productivity.

Nitrogen is regarded as the most important nutrient limiting productivity in marine ecosystems.
Because of the low concentrations of nutrients in the photic zone, large parts of the open oceans are low in primary
productivity per unit area and aptly called a “biological desert”.
These parts-which correspond to the centers of the great mid-ocean gysers are often collectively termed as oligotrophic
ocean in reference to their low nutrient levels and low productivity.

Productivity
 Gross primary productivity / Total Photosynthesis / total assimilation of an ecosystem is the rate of production of
organic matter produced during photosynthesis.
 The net primary productivity results in the accumulation of plant biomass, which serves as the food of herbivores and
decomposers. It is rate of Storage/ Biomass Accumulated.

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Table: World Productivity Estimates

NPP(gram organic
Ecosystem Type World total
matter per m2 per year)

Mean (109 metric tons/yr)

Tropical rain forest 2200 37.4

Tropical seasonal forest 1600 12.0

Temperate evergreen forest 1300 6.5

Temperate deciduous forest 1200 8.4

Boreal forest 800 9.6

Woodland and shrub land 700 6.0

Savanna 900 13.5

Temperate grassland 600 5.4

Tundra and alpine 140 1.1

Desert and semi desert 90 1.6

Extreme desert, rock, ice 3 0.07

Cultivated land 650 9.1

Swamp and marsh 2000 4.0

Lake and stream 250 0.5

TOTAL LAND 115

Open ocean 125 (180) 41.5 (60)

Upwelling zones 500 0.2

Continental shelf 360 9.6

Algal beds and reefs 2500 1.6

Estuaries 1500 2.1

TOTAL OCEAN 55.0

Table: Geographical Area, Mean Plant Biomass and Net Productivity in Major World Ecosystems
6 2 -1 Mean net primary
Ecosystems Area (10 km ) Mean plant biomass(t ha ) -1 -1
productivity (t ha year )
Tropical rain forest 17 440 20

Tropical deciduous forest 8 360 15

Temperate deciduous forest 7 300 12

Temperate coniferous forest 12 200 8

Savanna 15 40 9

Temperate grassland 9 20 5

Desert shrub 18 10 0.7

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HIT TRICK
 GPP : 1-5 per cent energy of incident radiation or 2-10 per cent of PAR
 NPP : 0.8-4 per cent of the incident total radiation or 1.6-8 per cent of PAR.
At the trophic level of consumers, the rate at which food energy is assimilated is called secondary productivity. Secondary
productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Soil Composition
 Soils are made up of four components. The two solid substances are small mineral particles and organic matter.
 In an average soil, about 45 per cent of the volume is filled with mineral particles and about 5 per cent by organic matter.
 The mineral composition of soils depends on the minerals in the parent material and the extent of weathering. The small
mineral particles come from weathering of rocks.
 The organic matter is of plant and animal origin, both from dead and living organisms.
 The other 50 per cent of the volume is filled with air and water.

Air 25%
Mineral Particles 45%
Water 25%

Organic Matter 5%

Organisms10% Humus 80%

Roots 10%
Composition of soil
Humus is the biochemical substance that makes the upper layers of the soil become dark. It is coloured dark brown to black.
Humus is difficult to see in isolation because it binds with larger mineral and organic particles. Humus provides soil with a
number of very important benefits:
 It enhances a soil's ability to hold and store moisture.
 It reduces the eluviation of soluble nutrients from the soil profile.
 It is the primary source of carbon and nitrogen required by plants for their nutrition.
 It improves soil structure which is necessary for plant growth.

Knowledge Enhancer
Mineral particles in soil vary greatly in size:
 Gravel (fine pebbles) - 1 – 10 nm.  Coarse sand - 0.2 and 1 mm  Sand (Quartz or SiO2)- 0.02 – 1.0 mm.
 Fine sand - 0.02 - 0.2 mm  Silt (very fine quartz grains) - 0.002 – 0.02 mm.
 Clay (hydrated silicates of aluminium) - Less than 0.002 mm.
Clay is probably the most important type of mineral particle found in soil. Despite their small size, clay particles have a very
large surface area relative to their volume. This large surface is highly reactive and has the ability to attract and hold
positively charged nutrient ions.
 Fine textured soils have a predominance of clay and silt particles, and coarse textured soils are predominated by sand
particles.
 In desert soils, the top soil has little or no humus. The subsoil is a mixture of sand, clay, minerals and salts. In the
grassland, the roots of native plants penetrate deep in the ground, forming a dense sod (turf) that holds moisture and
prevents erosion.

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 In temperate forest soils, the top horizon is a rich mixture of humus and inorganic soil components.
 In tropical rain forests, heavy rainfall and high temperatures result in nutrient-poor soils.
O - Horizon, litter layer O - Horizon, very thin litter

A - Horizon (top soil), shallow

A - Horizon (top soil) light coloured
humus-mineral mixture
B - Horizon, loam and silt
B - Horizon, dense clay mixed with
B - Horizon, dark brown clay iron-aluminium compounds

C - Horizon, glacial deposits

C - Horizon
Soil profile of temperate deciduous forests Soil profile of tropical rain forests

Soil Profiles
Most soils have a distinct profile or sequence of horizontal layers. Generally, these result from the processes of chemical
weathering, eluviation, illuviation, and organic decomposition. Up to five layers can be present in a typical soil: O, A, B, C,
and R horizons.
 A horizon is found below the O layer. This layer is composed primarily
of mineral particles. The A horizon is commonly differentiated into a
darker upper horizon or organic accumulation, and a lower horizon O Horizon
showing loss of material by eluviation. Eluviation A Horizon
Layer
 The O horizon is the topmost layer of most soils. It is composed
mainly of plant litter at various levels of decomposition and Illuviation B Horizon
Layer
humus.
 Upper horizon is the layer in which humus and other organic C Horizon
materials are mixed with mineral particles, and lower horizon is a
zone of translocation from which eluviation has removed finer R Horizon
particles and soluble substances, both of which may be Typical layers found in a soil
deposited at a lower layer.
 The B horizon is a mineral soil layer which is strongly influenced by illuviation. Consequently, this layer receives
material eluviated from the A horizon. The B horizon also has a higher bulk density than the A horizon due to its
enrichment of clay particles. The B horizon may be coloured by oxides of iron and aluminum or by calcium carbonate
illuviated from the A horizon.
 The C horizon is composed of weathered parent material. The texture of this material can be quite variable with particles
ranging in size from clay to boulders.
 The C horizon has also not been significantly influenced by the pedogenic processes, translocation, and/or organic
modification.
 The final layer in a typical soil profile is called the R horizon. This soil layer simply consists of unweathered bedrock.

Soil Types
 Red Soils. Most famous are acidic laterite soils which are deficient in lime, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium but
are rich in organic matter, iron and aluminium.
 It is suitable for the cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber, cardamon, areca-nut and paddy.

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 Black Soils. Also called black cotton soils/(=regurs) They are in dark brown or black colour due to organic matter, clay/
hydrated iron and aluminium silicates and undifferentiated B-horizon.
 Alluvial Soils. Soils which are transported by mainly river water.
 Terai/Babar Soils. Mostly colluvial, (transported by gravity).
Soil pH. Plants grow best in neutral or slightly acidic soils. Slight alkalinity is helpful in growth of grasslands and some crop
plants like legumes.
Soil Porocity : It is the percentage and type of soil pores. They are of two types.
 Macropores. Noncapillary pores of more than 20 μm diameter. Water percolation (gravitational flow) occurs through
macropores of 50μm.
 Micropores. Capillary pores with diameter of 20 μm or less. Hold water by capillarity. Present 30% in good soils.

Decomposition
Decomposition is concerned with breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers to inorganic raw materials like
carbon dioxide, water and various nutrients.
 Dead plant parts and animal remains are called detritus which is the raw material for decomposition.
 Detritus constitute above ground detritus and below ground detritus (also called root detritus).
Earthworms help in the breakdown of complex organic matter as well as in loosening of the soil.
Humification
Humus
Environmental
conditions
Detritus
Fragmentaion
Leaching
Catabolism Mineralisation CO2, H 2O
Nutrients
Decomposition process

A tree grows in the soil

Some are eaten by insects and

other animals. Nutrients
and energy enter food web.

A green leaf falls

to the ground

Leaves partially consumed

by decomposers such as fungi
and bacteria. They begin to Some nutrients leach
lose form and become litter. into soil by
chemical action

Further
decomposition by
earthworms, bacteria,
soil, mites, fungi, etc.

Organic rich soil

Diagrammatic representation of decomposition cycle in a terrestrial ecosystem

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The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.
 The fragmentation of detritus, mainly due to the action of detritus feeding invertebrates (detritivores), causes it to
break into smaller particles. The detritus gets pulverized when passing through the digestive tracts of animals. Due to
fragmentation, the surface area of detritus particles is greatly increased.
 In the process of leaching, water soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon. Water percolating through
soil removes soluble substances (e.g., sugars, several nutrients) from the fragmented detritus due to leaching action.
 The extracellular enzymes released by bacteria and fungi carry out catabolism, i.e., enzymatic conversion of the
decomposing detritus to simpler compounds and inorganic substances. It is important to know that all the three
decomposition processes operate simultaneously on the detritus.
 Humification and mineralization occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to accumulation of a dark
coloured amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition
at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
The humus is further degraded by some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occurs by the process known as
mineralization. Mineralization results in the release of inorganic substances (e.g., CO2, H2O) and available nutrients (NH4+,
Ca++, Mg++, and K+ etc.) in the soil.

Factors affecting Decomposition

 Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process.
 The rate of decomposition of detritus is primarily regulated by the climatic factors and the chemical quality of detritus.
 Amongst climatic factors, the key role is played by temperature and soil moisture through their regulatory effect on the
activities of soil microbes.
 Detritus decomposes very rapidly, within a few weeks or months, in a climate characterized by higher temperature
(>25°C) and moist conditions (e.g., in humid tropical regions).
 Low temperature (<10°C) sharply reduces decomposition rate even if moisture is in plenty.
 The chemical quality of detritus is determined by the relative proportions of water-soluble substances (including
sugars), polyphenols, lignin and nitrogen. Within the same climatic conditions, decomposition rate is slower if the
detritus is rich in substances like lignin and chitin.
 The nitrogen-rich detritus, having low amounts of lignin, and high water-soluble substances like sugars decomposes
relatively rapidly.

HIT TRICK
Examples of Detritivores
 Mites, Woodlice, Springtails, Termites, Centipedes, Millipedes, Blowflies, Carpenter ants Shrimps.
 Mollusc, Maggots, Crabs, Amphipods, Rotifers, Carrion flies, Copepods Crustaceans.
 Earthworm, Shrimps, Musids, Annelids, Mussels, Ducks, Nematodes etc.
Humus
 Highly resistant to microbial action  Colloidal in nature
 Undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate.  Reservoir of nutrients.
 Enhances a soil's ability to hold and store moisture.
 Reduces the eluviation of soluble nutrients from the soil profile.

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Nutrient immobilisation : Soil nutrients get tied up with the biomass of microbes and temporarily become unavailable to
other organisms i.e. immobilised for variable periods .They get mineralised later, after the death of microbes and prevents
the nutrients from being washed out from the ecosystem

Energy Flow
Energy flow is the key function in the ecosystem. Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source
of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50 per cent of it is photosynthetically active
radiation (PAR).

The deep sea is a cold, dark place with some fascinating communities
 The deep sea is seasonless, cold (2 – 5°C), totally dark, and under high pressure (400 – 500 atmospheres where the
bottom is 4000 – 5000 m deep).
 In most regions of the deep sea, food originates from photosynthesis in the sunlit waters far above. Such food—in the
form of carcasses, fecal pellets, and mucus—can take as much as a month to drift down from the surface to the bottom,
and along the way about 99% of it is eaten by animals living in the water column.
 Thus, the bottom communities receive only about 1% of the primary production and are food-poor.
 Nonetheless, a great many species of animals—most of them small-bodied and thinly distributed—are now known to
live in the deep sea. Some of the animals are bioluminescent and thereby able to communicate or attract prey by use of
light.

Knowledge Enhancer
Hydrothermal vent communities
The most astounding communities in the deep sea are the hydrothermal vent communities. Unlike most parts of the deep sea, these
communities are thick with life including large-bodied animals such as worms the size of baseball bats. The hydrothermal vent
communities occur at places where tectonic plates are moving apart, and seawater—circulating through porous rock—is able to
come into contact with very hot rock under the seafloor. This water is heated to temperatures in excess of 350°C and, in the process,
becomes rich in hydrogen sulfide.
As the water rises up out of the porous rock, free-living and symbiotic bacteria oxidize the sulfide, and from this reaction they
obtain energy, which, in a manner analogous to photosynthesis, they use to synthesize their own cellular substance,
grow, and reproduce. These sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are chemoautotrophs. Animals in the communities either survive on the
bacteria or eat other animals that do. The hydrothermal vent communities are among the few communities on Earth that do not
depend on the Sun’s energy for primary production. In an ecosystem, the transfer of food energy from one organism to another
leads to degradation and loss of a major fraction of food energy as heat due to metabolic activities, with only a small fraction being
stored in living tissues or biomass. While energy in food is in concentrated form, heat energy is highly dispersed.
Under favourable environmental conditions, only about 1-5 per cent energy of incident radiation, or 2-10 per cent of PAR,
is actually captured by the photosynthetic process (gross primary productivity), and the remaining portion is dissipated.
Since the simultaneously occurring respiratory processes are energy consuming and use up part of the photosynthetic
gain, the net capture of energy (net primary productivity) is reduced to only 0.8-4 per cent of the incident total radiation, or
1.6-8 per cent of PAR. Only the energy captured in net productivity of producers can be used by other trophic levels.

Food Chain and Food Web

All trophic levels in an ecosystem are connected by transfer of food or energy. The transfer of energy from one trophic level
(e.g., producers) to the next trophic level (e.g., consumers) is called food chain.

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Two types of food chains can be distinguished in all ecosystems:

 Grazing food chain (GFC)  Detritus food chain (DFC)
Grazing food chain is also called Predator food chain. It is possible to have so many levels – producer, herbivore, primary
carnivore, secondary carnivore in the grazing food chain.
Grazing food chain extends from producers through herbivores to carnivores. Cattle grazing in grasslands, deer browsing
in forest, and insects feeding on crops and trees, are the most common biotic constituents of the grazing food chain. The
number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows the 10 per cent law – only
10 per cent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level.
 In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
 Death of organism is the beginning of the detritus food chain/web. The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead
organic matter. It is made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria. A much
larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain. In a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of
energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC.
 Detritus food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels: some of the organisms of DFC are
prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores. This
natural interconnection of food chains makes it a food web.

Grazing food chain

 Green plant is the first organism to absorb solar energy.
 It always starts from green plants to tertiary consumer level.
 Generally large organisms maintain this type of food chain.
 They do not help in nutrient cycle.

Detritus food chain

 It always starts from detritivores.  Bacteria, fungi are the first ones.
 There is an involvement of nutrient cycle.  Generally, small organisms maintain this type of food chain.

Standing Crop/ Biomass

Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time called as the standing crop. The standing crop is
measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. The biomass of a species is expressed in
terms of fresh or dry weight. Measurement of biomass in terms of dry weight is more accurate.
Table.: The Soil Food Chain
Types of Primary Secondary Tertiary
Ecosystems Producers Herbivores
Carnivores Carnivores Carnivores
Grassland Ecosystem Grasses Insects, Rats and Frogs, Snakes, Fox Snake Predatory Predatory birds
Mice, Rabbit birds Wolf Lion

Pond Ecosystem Phytoplankton Zooplanktons Small Fishes Large fishes Predatory birds

Forest Ecosystem Trees Phytophagous, Lizards, Birds, Lions, Tigers, etc.

Insects, Herbivores, Foxes
Mammals

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Energy Flow Model

In a terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Likewise, primary producers in an acquatic
ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton, algae and higher plants.
In an ecosystem, the energy flows one way, i.e., from producers through herbivores to carnivores; it cannot be transferred
in the reverse direction.
Incident solar radiation
(100%)

Photosynthetically Absorbed by gases/water vapour

Active Radiation(PAR) Reflected by clouds
(50%) Scattered by dust particles
(50%)

Captured in Photosynthesis
(grass primary productivity)
(1–5%)

Loss in respiration
(0.2 – 1%)
Net primary productivity
(0.8 – 4%)
The amount of energy flow decreases with successive trophic levels. Producers capture only a small fraction of solar
energy (1-5 per cent of total solar radiation). Part of the energy captured in gross production of producers is used for
maintenance of their standing crop (respiration) and for providing food to herbivores (herbivory).
The primary consumers will be herbivores. Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial ecosystem
and molluscs in aquatic ecosystem. The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more correctly primary
carnivores (though secondary consumers).

Heat First trophic

level producers Second trophic level Fourth trophic
primary consumers Third trophic level
(plants) secondary consumers level tertiary
(Herbivores) consumers
Heat (carnivores)
Sun Heat (top carnivores)
Heat

Heat Heat

Heat Heat

Those animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled secondary carnivores.
The unutilized net primary production is ultimately converted to detritus, which serves as energy source to decomposers.
The herbivore assimilation or productivity approximates 10 per cent of gross productivity of producers.

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The energy assimilated by the herbivores is used in respiration and a fraction of unassimilated energy is transferred to
decomposers (e.g., faecal matter). The remaining herbivore level energy is either utilized by the carnivores, or gets
transferred to decomposers after the death of herbivores.
Again, only a small fraction (about 10 per cent) of herbivore productivity is used to support carnivore productivity.
Similarly, the energy available at carnivore trophic level is again partitioned, leaving a very small fraction to support the next
trophic level (top carnivore).
The respiration cost also increases sharply along successive higher trophic levels.
 On an average, respiration of producer consumes about 20 per cent of its gross productivity.
 Herbivores consume about 30 per cent of assimilated energy in respiration.
 The proportion of assimilated energy consumed in respiration rises to about 60 per cent in carnivores.
There is tremendous loss of energy at successive higher trophic levels.

Producers
 In a terrestrial ecosystem - herbaceous and woody plants.  In shallow waters - macrophytes.
 In an aquatic ecosystem - phytoplankton, algae and higher plants

Herbivores
 Insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial ecosystem.  Molluscs in aquatic ecosystem.

An example of energy loss between trophic levels

As chemical-bond energy is passed from one heterotroph trophic level to the next, a great deal of the energy is diverted all
along the way. This principle has dramatic consequences. It means that, over any particular period of time, the amount of
chemical-bond energy available to primary carnivores is far less than that available to herbivores, and the amount available
to secondary carnivores is far less than that available to primary carnivores.
The chemical-bond energy of the food that is assimilated by the herbivore is used for a number of functions. Part of the
assimilated energy is liberated by cellular respiration to be used for tissue repair, body movements, and other such functions.
The energy used in these ways turns to heat and is not passed along to the carnivore trophic level. Some chemical-bond
energy is built into the tissues of the herbivore and can serve as food for a carnivore. However, some
herbivore individuals die of disease or accident rather than being eaten by predators.

Ecological Pyramids / Bar diagrams

 Trophic structure in ecosystem can be represented by comparing standing crop (either number of individuals, or
biomass) or energy fixed per unit area at different trophic levels.
 Graphical representation of the trophic structure is done by drawing ecological pyramids, where the basal, mid and top
tiers show the parameter values for producers, herbivores and carnivores in the ecosystem.
 The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level, while the apex represents tertiary or the top
level consumer.
 One must remember that the trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such.
 A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example, a sparrow
is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a secondary consumer when it eats insects and worms.
 In most ecosystems, all the pyramids of number, of energy and biomass are upright.
 A given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously.

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In certain ecosystems, the pyramid of number (e.g., in tree-dominated ecosystems) and the pyramid of biomass (e.g., in deep
water bodies) may be inverted.
For example, numerous small insects may occur on a single tree, and in oceans, the combined weight of numerous small
short-lived phytoplankton organisms at a given time is exceeded by the combined weight of large, long lived fish.
The pyramid of energy, however, is always upright and can never be inverted, because when energy flows from a particular
trophic level to the next trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step.
Amongst the three kinds of ecological pyramids, the pyramid of energy, which expresses mainly the rate of food production,
can be considered as the most representative of the functional characteristics.
It emphasizes that total energy flow at the successive trophic level always decreases, compared to the preceding trophic
level (explanation: lesser energy flow at herbivore trophic level compared to producer trophic level, and so on).

Examples

Tertiary Fourth Trophic level Man, Lion

Consumer (Top Carnivore)

Secondary Third Trophic level Bird, Fishes wolf

Consumer (Carnivore)

Primary Second Trophic level Zooplankton, Grasshopper

Consumer (Herbivore) and Cow

Primary Primary Trophic level Phytoplankton, Grass, Trees

Producer (Plants)

Diagrammatic representation of trophic levels in an ecosystem

Trophic level Number of Individuals

TC(Tertiary consumer) 3

SC(Secondary consumer) 3,54,000

PC(Primary consumer) 708,000

PP(Primary Producer) 5,842,000

Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem

Only three top carnivores are supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 million plants.

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Trophic level Dry weight (kg m-2)

Trophic level Dry mass
TC 1.5 2
(g/m )
Primary consumers (zooplankton) 21
SC 11
Primary Producers (zooplankton) 4
PC 37
PP 809 Some aquatic ecosystems (data from the English Channel)

Pyramid of biomass (Florida bog)

Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels.

Large Fishes Secondary

Carnivores

Small Fishes Primary

Carnivores C(0.01)
TC 10J
H(1)
Zooplankton Herbivores
P(500) SC 100J
-2
Biomass(g m ) PC 1000J
Pyramid of Biomass
Phyto- Producers PP 10,000J
plankton in fellow land
1000,000J of Sunlight
Inverted Pyramid of An ideal pyramid of energy
Biomass in pond system
There are exceptions to this generalization.
The pyramid of biomass in sea is also generally inverted because the biomass of fish far exceeds that of phytoplankton.
Pyramid of energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the
next trophic level, some energy is always lost as heat at each step. Each bar in the energy pyramid indicates the amount of
energy present at each trophic level in a given time or annually per unit area.

HIT TRICK
Biomass of trophic levels depends upon
 Longevity of members  Reproductive potential

Limitations of ecological pyramids

 A pyramid does not take into account the same species belonging to two or more trophic levels.
 A pyramid assumes a simple food chain that never exists in nature.
 A pyramid does not accommodate a food web.  In a pyramid, saprophytes are not given any place.
Pyramid of biomass in ponds is inverted
 If total biomass produced per unit time is calculated it is always upright
 If total biomass is calculated on annual basis it is always upright

Pyramid of biomass may be misleading

If rate of consumption equals rate of production so no clue about materials and energy passed through trophic levels. If
producers are small – they have high turnover rate – although biomass may be small when compared to a tree – both can
have same productivity and can support same amount of animal life.
Large animals / plants have lower turnover.

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Ecological Efficiencies
Various ratios are used to express the efficiency with which organisms exploit their food resources and convert the food into
biomass. Commonly, such ratios are calculated by relating output to input of energy (both expressed in same units) at
various points along pathways of energy flow. These ratios are multiplied with 100 to express the efficiency as per centage.
At the level of producer, the photosynthetic efficiency and net production efficiency deserve consideration.
The photosynthetic efficiency measures the ability to utilize incident solar radiation. This efficiency is also expressed in
relation to PAR (photosynthetically active radiation).
Net production efficiency varies widely amongst different species. Tree species having larger non-photosynthetic biomass
(e.g., huge trunks and branches) show lesser net production efficiency.
The ability of the herbivores and carnivores to use the food energy ingested varies from one species to another. Important
efficiency measures for consumers include assimilation efficiency (at one trophic level) and ecological efficiency, or trophic
level efficiency (between two trophic levels).
Gross primary productivity  100
Photosynthetic efficiency 
Incident total solar radiation

Net primary productivity  100

Net production efficiency 
Gross primary productivity

Food energy assimilated  100

Assimilation efficiency 
Food energy ingested

Energyin biomass production at

a trophiclevel 100
Ecological efficiency 
Energyin biomass production
at previous trophiclevel

HIT TRICK
Ecologists figure as a rule of thumb that the amount of chemical-bond energy available to a trophic level over time is about 10% of
that available to the preceding level over the same period of time. In some instances the percentage is higher, even as high as 30%.

Illustration - 1 Standing crop and biomass are related to each other, how?
SOLUTION :
Standing crop is mass of living material in a trophic level at a particular time which is measured as mass of living organisms
i.e., their biomass which may be fresh or dry weight.

Illustration - 2 Write the equation that helps in deriving the net primary productivity of an ecosystem.
SOLUTION :
GPP – R = NPP
where GPP is Gross Primary Productivity
R is Respiratory Losses
NPP is Net Primary Productivity

Illustration - 3 What does standing crop of a trophic level represent?

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SOLUTION :
Standing crop represents the mass of living material (biomass) at a given particular, time.

Illustration - 4 What is a detritus food chain made up of ? How do they meet their energy and nutritional requirements?
SOLUTION :
Decomposers, dead plant and animal remains and faecal matter. They meet their energy and nutritional requirements by
degrading the dead orgnaic material.

Illustration - 5 Why is an earthworm called detritivore?

SOLUTION :
Earthworms ingest and breakdown the detritus into smaller particles, hence they are called detritivores.

PRACTICE EXERCISE-1

1. Edaphic factor refers to :

(1) Water (2) Soil (3) Relative humidity (4) Altitude

2. Which one fo the following is not a functional unit of an ecosystem?

(1) Productivity (2) Stratification (3) Energy flow (4) Decomposition

3. An ecosystem which can be easily damaged but can recover after some time if damaging effect stops wil be having?
(1) High stability and high resilience (2) Low stability and low resilience
(3) High stability and low resilience (4) Low stability and high resilience

4. Keystone species in an ecosystem are those:

(1) Present in maximum number (2) That are not frequent
(3) Attaining a large biomass (4) Contributing to ecosystem properties

5. The bacteria which attack dead animals are:

(1) First link of the food chain and are known as primary producers
(2) Second link of the food chain and are herbivorous
(3) Third link of the food chain and are tertiary consumers
(4) The end of food chain and are decomposers

IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-A
1. The net primary productivity of an ecosystem is:
(1) Total weight of green plants - respiratory losses
(2) Total weight of green plants + respiratory losses
(3) Respiratory losses alone
(4) None of the above

2. Which of the following are consumers of second order?

(1) Herbivores (2) Carnivores (3) Top carnivores (4) None of the above

3. Which of the following is not a organic matter in soil?

(1) Clay particles (2) Humus (3) Detritus (4) Litter

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4. The trophic level of Cuscuta, Orobanche and Albugo is:

(1) Decomposer (2) Primary producer
(3) Primary consumer (4) Secondary consumer

5. Under what condition, the upright pyramid of biomass becomes inverted:

(1) Grassland ecosystem (2) Terrestrial ecosyslem
(3) Pond ecosystem (4) Tree ecosystem

6. The storage of organic matter not used by heterotrophs is termed as:

(1) Gross primary production (2) Net secondary production
(3) Net production (4) Secondary production

7. Transfer of material and energy from one ecosystem to other ecosystem is best examplified by:
(1) Harvesting of fishes (2) Grazing of pastureland
(3) Game hunting in Savannah (4) Silvicultural practices in a woodland

8. In an ecosystem energy flows in:

(1) One direction (2) Two direction (3) Four direction (4) All directions

9. Standing state of the ecosystem is:

(1) Living and non-living components (2) Only living components
(3) Total weight of non-living components (4) None of the above

10. Which ecosystem does not show variations dependent upon geographic location and rainfall?
(1) Marine ecosystem (2) Fresh water ecosystem
(3) Desert ecosystem (4) Tropical ecosystem

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES & ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION Section-2

The sun is the basic source of energy on which all life depends.
Out of the total solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface, only a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
photosynthesis.
Studies have shown that for the last one billion years, the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been composed of approximately
the same balance of chemical components. This balance of the chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic passage through
the tissues of plants and animals.
The cycle starts by absorbing the chemical elements by the organism and is returned to the air, water and soil through
decomposition. These cycles are largely energized by solar insolation. These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the
biosphere between the organism and the environment are referred to as biogeochemical cycles. Bio refers to living organisms
and geo to rocks, soil, air and water of the earth.
There are two types of biogeochemical cycles:
 Gaseous and  Sedimentary cycle
In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean.
In the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of the earth’s crust.
Bulk of nutrients are stored in abiotic reservoirs in relatively inactive state, and a smaller active fraction, often existing in
ionic form, is involved in cycling.

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Nutrient cycles can be conveniently considered under the following three aspects:
 Input of Nutrients : Ecosystem receives nutrients from external sources and stores them for further use through
biological processes. For example, wet deposition and dry deposition.
 Output of Nutrients : Nutrients are moved out of an ecosystem and many become inputs to another ecosystem. For
example, considerable loss of nutrients like calcium and magnesium occurs through runoff water, or through soil
erosion. Significant amount of nitrogen may be lost in gaseous form by the denitrification process in soil. Harvesting
of agricultural crops, or transportation of logs from forests, represent nutrient loss from these ecosystems.
In an undisturbed ecosystem, the input of nutrients may approximately equal the output of nutrients, rendering the nutrient
cycles more or less [Link], the absolute amounts of nutrients moving in (input) and moving out (output) of the
ecosystem are much less than the amounts of nutrients cycled within the ecosystem.
 Internal Nutrient Cycling : Plants absorb varying amounts of nutrients from the soil. The transfer of nutrients from the
soil to plants by the process of nutrient absorption is known as uptake.
The absorbed nutrients are brought back to soil through litter fall from vegetation, animal remains and faecal matter, etc. The
above ground, as well as root detritus decompose to regenerate the nutrients.
When the uptake of nutrients exceeds the amount recycled (e.g., as in the case of a young growing forest), a fraction of the
uptake is retained in the standing crop. This retention of balance nutrients in the standing crop leads to increase in nutrient
content of the ecosystem. Thus, in a nutrient cycle:
Retention = Uptake – Recycle

Carbon Cycle
Carbon forms the basic constituent of all organic compounds. The biosphere contains over half a million carbon compounds
in them. The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide. This conversion is initiated by the fixation of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Plant tissues are either eaten by the herbivorous animals or get
decomposed by the microorganisms. The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for
release into the air through respiration. The microorganisms decompose the remaining carbohydrates into carbon dioxide
and are returned to the atmosphere.
 Carbon constitutes 49 per cent of dry weight of organisms and is next only to water.
 71 per cent carbon is found dissolved in oceans.  Fossil fuel also represents a reservoir of carbon.
 This oceanic reservoir regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
 The atmosphere only contains about 1 per cent of total global carbon.
 According to one estimate 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.

Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen comprises about seventy-nine per cent of the atmospheric gases.
 It is also an essential constituent of different organic compounds such as the amino acids, nucleic acids, proteins,
vitamins and pigments.
 The ultimate source of nitrogen to the ecosystem is molecular nitrogen in the atmosphere, which cannot be directly
metabolized by plants or animals. Only a few types of organisms such as certain species of soil bacteria and blue green
algae are capable of utilizing it directly in its gaseous form.
 Generally, nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed.  Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is biological.
 Nitrogen can also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic radiation. In the oceans, some marine animals can
fix it.

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 After atmospheric nitrogen has been fixed into an available form, green plants can assimilate it. Herbivorous animals
feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it.
Nitrogen fixation in terrestrial ecosystems is predominantly carried out by symbiotic microbes, whereas the bulk of fixation
in aquatic ecosystems is done by free-living microbes.
Important free-living nitrogen fixing bacteria residing in soil are: Azotobacter (aerobic) and Clostridium (anaerobic).
A variety of cyanobacteria are mainly responsible for nitrogen fixation in flooded rice fields in the tropics. Anabaena,
Aulosira and Nostoc are amongst the important nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Legumes signify the most effective symbiotic
combination with the bacteria Rhizobium, living in their root nodules.
A number of higher plant species other than legumes (e.g., Casuarina and Alnus), also produce nodules harbouring
Frankia, a nitrogen-fixing actinomycete. Another bacterium, Azospirillum, growing on the root surface of several tropical
grasses, also fixes nitrogen; this combination where the nitrogen-fixing microbe does not penetrate deep into host tissues
is known as associative symbiosis.
Ammonification is done by many heterotrophic bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi, by enzymatically degrading organic
nitrogen, like protein and nucleic acid contained in detritus, into ammonia. After meeting their own metabolic requirements,
these microbes release the excess ammonia in the soil. Next, ammonia is converted into nitrate by a group of chemo-
autotrophic bacteria through a two-step process called nitrification. Initially, ammonia is converted to nitrite by the bacterium
Nitrosomonas, followed by the conversion of nitrite into nitrate by Nitrobacter.
If the soil is waterlogged and anaerobic, another group of microbes, the denitrifiers, become active. Pseudomonas, the most
common denitrifying bacterium, thrives best under poorly-aerated and detritus-rich conditions.
Denitrifying bacteria transform nitrates to nitrous and nitric oxides, and ultimately to gaseous nitrogen.

Phosphorus Cycle
Rocks and natural phosphate deposits are the main reservoirs of phosphorus.
Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles differ radically on two accounts. Firstly, atmospheric inputs of phosphorus through
rainfall are much smaller than nitrogen inputs, and gaseous exchanges of phosphorus between organisms and environment
are negligible. In contrast, main input of phosphorus in terrestrial ecosystems comes from the weathering of phosphorus
containing minerals in the soil. Secondly, phosphorus shows high sorption or fixation capacity in strongly acidic, as well as
alkaline soils, as a result of which phosphorus availability to plants is drastically reduced.

Consumers Producers

Litter fall
Detritus

Decomposition

Uptake
Soil Solution
Run off

Weathering

Rock minerals

A simplified model of phosphorus cycling in terrestrial ecosystem

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Phosphorus occurs in soil solution mainly as orthophosphate (PO43–).Plants absorb phosphate from soil and incorporate
it into organic compounds.
Phosphate solubilising bacteria maintain supply of phosphate ions by converting organic phosphorus contained in detritus.
Absorption of phosphorus by the higher plants is promoted by the presence of mycorrhizae.

Water Cycle
All living organisms, the atmosphere and the lithosphere maintain between them a circulation of water in solid, liquid or
gaseous form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle.
 About 84 per cent of the total global evaporation occurs from ocean surface and 16 per cent from land surface.
 At any given time, the amount of moisture in the air is only enough to meet a total rainfall requirement of 10 days. Thus,
there is very fast movement of water from ocean and land into the atmosphere, and an average residence time of water
in the air is only about 10 days.
 About 77 per cent of the total rainfall on earth is received on the sea surface (as against 84 per cent evaporation from
this segment) and 23 per cent on land (16 per cent share of total evaporation to the atmosphere).
 There is a net gain of 7 per cent rainfall water on land, and this excess is returned to the oceans by surface runoff
through rivers and sub-surface water flows.
On a global basis, the hydrological cycle is perfectly balanced as the total annual evaporation matches with annual
precipitation.
 About three-fourth of the earth’s surface is occupied by oceans, which contain about 97.5 per cent of the earth’s water
in strongly saline condition.
 The rest 2.5 per cent is fresh water, Most of the fresh water is frozen as polar or glacial ice (1.97 per cent). Remaining
fresh water occurs as groundwater (0.5 per cent) and water in lakes and rivers (0.02 per cent), soil (0.01 per cent) and
atmosphere (0.001 per cent).
 Worldwide, approximately 70 per cent of total water use is accounted by agriculture, only about 1.1 per cent is used for
domestic and municipal supplies, and the rest is consumed by various industries.
The Water Cycle
(The Hydrologic Cycle)

Condensation Condensation
(Clouds form)
Precipitation

Transpiration
Surface Evaporation
Runoff
Subsurface
(underground)
Runoff

Accumulation

Water cycle

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Ecosystem Services
The products of ecosystem processes are named as ecosystem services, for example, healthy forest ecosystems purify air
and water, mitigate droughts and floods, cycle nutrients, generate fertile soils, provide wildlife habitat,
maintain biodiversity, pollinate crops, provide storage site for carbon and also provide aesthetic, cultural and spiritual
values.
Though value of such services of biodiversity is difficult to determine, it seems reasonable to think that biodiversity should
carry a hefty price tag.
Robert Constanza and his colleagues have very recently tried to put price tags on nature’s life-support services. Researchers
have put an average price tag of US $ 33 trillion a year on these fundamental ecosystems services, which are largely taken
for granted because they are free. This is nearly twice the value of the global gross national product GNP which is (US $ 18
trillion).
Out of the total cost of various ecosystem services, the soil formation accounts for about 50 per cent, and contributions of
other services like recreation and nutrient cycling, are less than 10 per cent each.
The cost of climate regulation and habitat for wildlife are about 6 per cent each.

Knowledge Enhancer
Ecosystem Services are the processes by which the environment produces resources that we often take for granted.
Robert Costanza, Ralph d’Arge, Rudolf de Groot estimated the current economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes,
based on published studies and a few original calculations.

Ecological Succession
An important characteristic of all communities is that composition and structure constantly change in response to the
changing environmental conditions. This change is orderly and sequential, parallel with the changes in the physical
environment. These changes lead finally to a community that is in near equilibrium with the environment and that is called
a climax community.
 The gradual and fairly predictable change in the species composition of a given area is called ecological succession.
 Both abiotic and biotic components are involved in such a change.
 Succession is a community-controlled phenomenon, which results due to the action and co-action on living organisms.
Physical environment often determines the nature, direction, rate and optimal limit of change.
 During succession, changes occur both in plant and animal communities.
 The plant succession, however, is easily visible.
During succession, some species colonize an area and their populations become more numerous, whereas populations of
other species decline and even disappear. The entire sequence of communities that successively changes in a given area is
called sere(s). The individual transitional communities are termed seral stages or seral communities. In the successive seral
stages, there is a change in the diversity of species of organisms, increase in the number of species and organisms as well
as an increase in the total biomass.
The present day communities in the world have come to be because of succession that has occurred over millions of years
since life started on earth. Actually succession and evolution would have been parallel processes at that time.
Succession is hence a process that starts where no living organisms exist – these could be areas where no living organisms
ever existed, say bare rock; or in areas that somehow, lost all the living organisms that existed there. The former is called
primary succession, while the latter is termed secondary succession.

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Examples of areas where primary succession occurs are newly cooled lava, bare rock, newly created pond or reservoir.
The establishment of a new biotic community is generally slow. Before a biotic community of diverse organisms can become
established, there must be soil. Depending mostly on the climate, it takes natural processes several hundred to several
thousand years to produce fertile soil on bare rock. Primary succession is a very slow process.
The more common type of succession is secondary succession, which occurs in an area where the natural vegetation has
been destroyed or removed. Secondary succession begins in areas where natural biotic communities have been destroyed
such as in abandoned farm lands, burned or cut forests, lands that have been flooded, the forests destroyed by fire and
excessive lumbering. In secondary succession, the species that invade depend on the condition of the soil, availability of
water, the environment as also the seeds or other propagules (material that is used for the purpose of propagating an
organism to the next stage in their life cycle via dispersal) present. Since soil is already there, the rate of succession is much
faster and hence, climax is also reached more quickly.

Primary Secondary

 Glacial moraine  Abundoned farmlands

 Sand dunes  Burnt/Cut forests
 Bare rocks  Flooded fields

 Newly cooled lava  Forests destroyed by fire and excessive lumbering

 Newly crested ponds/reservoirs

As succession proceeds, the numbers and types of animals and decomposers also change. At any time during primary or
secondary succession, natural or human induced disturbances (fire, deforestation, etc.), can convert a particular seral stage
of succession to an earlier stage. Also such disturbances create new conditions that encourage some species and discourage
or eliminate other species.
Another important fact is to understand that all succession whether taking place in water or on land, proceeds to a similar
climax community – the mesic (a type of habitat with a moderate or well-balanced supply of moisture).

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

Area is sterile in beginning fertile

Soil is absent in beginning present
Humus absent Present, Area often contain reproductive structures of previous community
Many seral community Few

Slow - taking 1000 years Fast in 50 - 200 years

Environment is very hostile Not - rather condusive

Pioneer community comes from outside Partly occupants, partly migrants

Knowledge Enhancer
Succession
 Orderly process of community change  Community controlled process
 Result from modification of physical environment by community
 Directional change in community structure and function and can be accurately predicted
 Involve whole community –plants,animals,fungi etc  Culminates in establishment of a stable ecosystem

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Succession of Plants
Based on the nature of the habitat – whether it is water (or very wet areas) or it is on very dry areas – succession of plants
is called hydrach or xerarch, respectively.
 Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas  Xerarch succession takes place in dry areas
Both hydrarch and xerach successions lead to medium water conditions (mesic) – neither too dry (xeric) nor too wet
(hydric). The species that invade a bare area are called pioneer species.
Generally, the pioneer species show high rate of growth but short life span.

Succession on a Bare Rock (Xerarch)

 Lichen stage: Bare rock is invaded first by crustose lichens (Graphis, Rhizocarpon). They corrode the rock at places
causing foliose lichens (e.g., Parmelia, Dematocarpon) to invade, eliminate crustose lichens and creating conditions
like producing humus-rich soil for invasion by [Link] tropics, blue-green algae are pioneers instead of lichens.
 Moss Stage : Mosses capable of tolerating drought invade the humus rich soils created by the foliose lichens, e.g.,
Tortula, Grimmia, Polytrichum.
 Annual Grass Stage : Annual hardy grasses and herbs invade the humus rich moss dominated rock surface, e.g.,
Aristida, Poa.
 Perennial Grass Stage : Annual grasses are slowly replaced by perennial grasses with runners and rhizomes. e.g.,
Heteropogon, Cymbopogon.
 Shrub /Scrub Stages : Shurbs begin to grow in an area occupied by perennial grasses. They increase soil and humus
content besides moisture., e.g. Rhus, Capparis, Zizyphus.
 Climax Community : Initially hardy, light demanding small trees invade the area. They make the habitat shadier and more
moist. Ultimately, trees, shrubs and herbs representing the climax community begin to grow in the area.
The changes in biotic community from the pioneer to the climax stage may take hundreds of years.

Lichens Grasses Mixed Shrubs Young forest Mature forest Climax forest (beech
and herba- (tulip poplar) (white oak and and sugar maple)
Exposed weeds ceous hickory)
rocks plants
Mosses
Succession on a Bare Rock
The climax community is stable and does not show changes in species composition, as long as the environmental conditions
remain the same. With time the xerophytic habitat gets converted into a mesophytic one.

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Succession in Aquatic Environment (Hydrarch)

 Plankton Stage : Phytoplanktons are the pioneers in a freshly formed water body.
 Submerged stage : Hydrilla, Potamogeton and Najas form dense growth at bottom enriched with organic matter.
 Floating Stage : In the shallow regions plants appear with tuberous, rhizomatous and creeping stems and leaves
floating on the surface of water, e.g., Nymphaea, Nelumbo, Lemna, Azolla, trapa, etc
 Free floating stage : Plants like Pistia, Eichhornia.
 Reed Swamp Stage : In shallower water, amphibious plants (with emergent leaves) begin to grow (e.g., Sagittaria,
Typha, Phragmites)
 Sedge / Marsh Meadow Stage : On newly built up shores, Carex (Sedge), Juncus, Cyperus, some grasses and herbs
grow rapidly lower the water table.
 Woodland Stage : Rhizome bearing shrubs and small trees capable of tolerating excessive light and water logged
conditions appear on the edges of sedge/marsh meadow. Eg.: Cornus, Populus, Alnus etc.
 Climax Stage : New trees, shrubs and herbs which are in perfect harmony with the climate of the area.
The colonization by land plants usually progresses from margins toward the centre of the pond area.

Phytoplankton Reed-swamp stage

Submerged plant stage Marsh-meadow stage

Submerged free floating Scrub stage

plant stage

Forest
Succession in Aquatic Environment

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Table: Changes in Community Characteristics and Climax

Characteristics Seral stages Climax

Nutrient conservation Low High

Efficiency of energy use Low High

Food chains Simple Complex web

Community organization Simple Complex

Ecological niches Few, generalized Many, specialized

Size of individuals small Large

Size of individuals Small Large

Life cycle Simple Complex

Conditions Extreme Optimum

Stratification Less developed Developed

Growth rates Fast Slow

Mineral cycling Fast Slow

Rate of respiration Low High

Net community productivity High Low

Stability Less stable Stable

Species diversity Low High

Keystone Species
The term keystone species was first coined by Robert Paine (1966).
 They exert much influence on community relative to their low abundance or biomass disproportionately
 They have vital role in controlling the relative abundance of other species
 They are either part of food chain or become during scarcity
 They maintain community structure and function
 They produce long lasting effects
 Their removal cause serious disruption / drastic changes in community
Ex - Bats , Top carnivores, Figs, Elephants, Crocodiles, Pisaster , Sea otter , Lobsters, Kangaroo rats,

Paine described the criteria for a keystone species

 A keystone species exerts top-down influence on lower trophic levels and prevents species at lower trophic levels from
monopolizing critical resources, such as competition for space or key producer food sources.
 Keystone prey are species that can maintain their numbers despite being preyed upon, therefore controlling the
density of a predator.
 Keystone species are species that play a disproportionately large role in the prevalence and population levels of other
species within their ecosystem or community.
 In contrast to dominant species, keystone species are not usually abundant in a community. They exert strong control
on community structure not by numerical might but by their pivotal ecological roles, or niches.

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Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

Dominant Species
Dominant species in a community are the species that are the most abundant or that collectively have the highest biomass.
As a result, dominant species exert a powerful control over the occurrence and distribution of other species.

Forests
Approximately one-third of the earth’s total land area is covered by forests.

Functions of forests
 Productive functions, include production of wood, fruits and a wide variety of compounds, such as resins,
alkaloids,essential oils, latex, etc.
 Protective functions, include conservation of soil and water; prevention of drought, shelter against wind, neat, radiation
and noise.
 Regulative functions, involve absorption,storage and release of gases (CO2, O2), water, mineral elements and radiant
energy
Forest Area in India : Forest cover is to 19.4 per cent
This is considerably less than the optimum 33 per cent forest area recommended by the National Forest Policy (1988) for the
plains, and at least 67 per cent for the hills. Today, per capita forest area available in India is 0.06 ha, which is much below
the average for the world (0.64 ha per person).

Deforestation
 While the temperate forests have lost only 1 per cent or less of its area, the tropics have lost more than 40 per cent of
the forest cover due to deforestation.
 Current deforestation rate in tropics is estimated to be more than 10 million ha per year.
Social forestry aims to plant trees and shrubs on all unused and fallow land to provide fuel wood, fodder, etc., thereby
reducing pressure on existing forests. For example, unused farmland, community land, road and rail sides, etc. are planted
with suitable indigenous and/or exotic tree species.
Agro-forestry includes a variety of land uses, where woody species are grown in combination with herbaceous crops,
either at the same time or in time sequence. For instance, taungya system involves growing agricultural crops between rows
of planted trees (sal, teak). The well-known shifting cultivation or jhum, a traditional agro-forestry system widely practiced
in the north-eastern region of our country, involves felling and burning of forests, followed by cultivation of crops for a few
years, and abandoning cultivation to allow forest regrowth.

Grassland
 Grasslands (also called rangeland) provide forage and habitat to domestic animals and wildlife.
 Grass cover is extremely effective in binding soil particles with the help of highly branched fibrous root system,
thereby significantly reducing soil erosion.
 In India, the area under various kinds of grass cover, including fallow and waste lands, is estimated to be about 18 per
cent of the total land area.

Forests and Wildlife Laws

 Forest Act, 1927  National Forest Policy, 1988  Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 [Amended 1991]

Some Important Terms/Concepts

 Nekton: Acquatic organisms having well developed locomotory organs actively swim in surface and deep waters.
 Benthon: Organisms of the bottom which are sessile, creeping or crawling. These are scavengers and decomposers,

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 Estuary: It is the coastal bud formed at the mouth of a river. There is intermixing of fresh river water and sea water. It is
one of the most productive ecosystems. Region has maximum fluctuations and there is a rapid circulation of nutrients,
quick removal of waste products.
 Oligotrophic lakes: They are deep, having rocky steep sides with less circulation of nutrients. They have little biota.
Brackish lakes are oligotrophic lakes and also occur in arid areas, e.g. Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan.
 Eutrophic lakes: These are rich in biota and have quick circulation of nutrients. These are shallower, e.g. Dal Lake in
Kashmir.
 Ecotones and edge effect: The transition zone between two communities is known as ecotone. For example, the
ecotone between grassland and the forest. Ecotone contains few species from both communities. The total number of
species is often greater in the ecotone than in the adjoining communities. The tendency of increased variety and
density of some organisms at the community border is known as the 6 edge effect. The organisms which occur
primarily, or most abundantly, or spend the greatest amount of their time in junctions between communities, are called
edge species.
 Coral Reefs : Coral reefs are formed largely from the calcium carbonate skeletons of corals. Shallow reef-building corals
live in the photic zone of relatively stable tropical marine environments with high water clarity, primarily on islands and
along the edge of some continents.

Illustration - 6 Name the pioneer species on a bare rock. How do they help in establishing the next type of vegetation?
Mention the type of climax community that will ultimately get established.
SOLUTION :
Lichens are pioneer species on a bare rock.
They secrete certain acids, which help in weathering of rocks and soil formation. It gives way to small plants like bryophytes,
which can take hold in the small amount of soil. The climax community will be a forest.

Illustration - 7 Define a climax community. How does a sere differ from a seral community?
SOLUTION :
A climax community is the one that gets established at the terminal stage of succession and remains in equilibrium with the
environment.

Illustration - 8 Difference between sere and seral community.

SOLUTION :
Sere Seral community
A sere refers to entire sequence of communities that Each of the communities that gets the pioneer and
established between successively change in a given climax communities, is called a seral community.
area.

Illustration - 9 What is nutrient cycling in nature?

SOLUTION :
Nutrients do not stay at one place in an ecosystem. They move from abiotic to biotic components. For this movement, they
need energy. Minerals, etc., are absorbed by the plants. Plants are eaten by hervivores and herbivores by carnivores. Death
at all these trophic levels returns the nutrients back to the environment. this called nutrient cycling.

Illustration - 10 What is meant by ecosystem servies?

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 Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

SOLUTION :
Man, although a part of ecosystem, derives innumerable benefits from the ecosystem. For example, clean air, clean water
and fertile soil. Lot of aesthetic values are derived from nature such services come free and to all and no price tag can be
applied to them.

PRACTICE EXERCISE-2
6. Reed-swamp stage is characterised by the occurrence of:
(1) Free floating plants (2) Floating leaved plants
(3) Submerged plants (4) Emergent plants
7. Pioneers in the secondary succession of previously burnt forest are:
(1) Mosses (2) Ferns (3) Lichens (4) Epiphytes
8. Find out the correct order of succession levels in Xerarch:
(1) Lichen moss stage, Annual herb stage, Perennial herb stage, Scrub stage, Forest
(2) Annual herb stage, Perennial herb stage, Lichen moss stage, Scrub stage, Froest
(3) Perennial herb stage, Annual herb stage, Lichen moss stage, Scrub stage, Forest
(4) Forest, scrub stage, Annual herb stage, Perennial herb stage, Lichen moss stage.
9. Different communities represented by combinations of mosses, herbs, shrubs and trees replacing one another during
succession are referred as:
(1) Climax communities (2) Seral communities
(3) Successive communities (4) Pioneer communities
10. Which is not a gaseous biogeochemical cycle?
(1) Sulphur (2) Phosphorus (3) Nitrogen (4) Carbon

IN-CHAPTER EXERCISE-B
1. Which one of the following is involved in sedimentary cycle?
(1) Carbon (2) Nitrogen (3) Phosphorus (4) Hydrogen
2. Some of the stages in the hydrarch are labelled as:
a. Marsh meadow stage b. Reed swamp stage
c. Submerged plant stage d. Phytoplankton stage
e. Submerged free floating plant stage.
Identify the choice that represents the correct sequence of these stages
(1) d, c, e, b and a (2) c, e, a, b and d (3) b, d, c, a and e (4) d, e, c, b and a
3. Which is not recycled in ecosystem?
(1) Nitrogen (2) Water (3) Energy (4) Oxygen
4. Select an incorrect statement:
(1) Primary succession is a slow process (2) Climax community is always mesic
(3) Members of climax community are competitive (4) Members of pioneer community are local
5. Largest reservoir of sulphur is:
(1) Atmosphere (2) Rocks (3) Oceam (4) Lake
6. Which one of the following pairs is mismatched?
(1) Tundra : Permafrost (2) Savanna : Acacia trees
(3) Prairie : epiphytes (4) Coniferous forest : evergreen trees

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7. Deserts receive rainfall of less than 25 cm annually. How much area of land is desert ?
(1) About 10 to 15% (2) About 33% (3) About 15 to 20% (4) About 40%

8. Which sea is referred to as an oceanic desert?

(1) Red sea (2) Sargasso sea (3) Arabian sea (4) Sea of Japan

9. Ecesis is:
(1) establishment of a plant in a new place (2) a condition of equilibrium
(3) climax (4) invasion of a number of plants

10. Estuary is characterized by:

(1) High species diversity (2) Quick removal of waste
(3) Maximum turbulence and year round succession of organisms
(4) All of these

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example - 1 Which is not true regarding ecosystem?
(1) Self sufficient unit
(2) Cyclic exchange of materials between living beings and environment
(3) Only requirement is input of energy (4) Characterized by a major vegetation type
SOLUTION : (4)
Biome is a major vegetation. Ecosystem may be small or large.

Example - 2 Which is not a structural aspect of ecosystem ?

(1) Productivity (2) Species composition (3) Diversity (4) Life cycle
SOLUTION : (1)
Productivity is a functional aspect of ecosystem.

Example - 3 Which of the following is a functional aspect of ecosystem?

(1) Species composition (2) Inorganic nutrients
(3) Homeostasis (4) Topography
SOLUTION : (3)
Species composition, amount of inorganic nutrients and topography are structural aspects of ecosystem.

Example - 4 Which of the following are called key industry animals?

(1) Autotrophs (2) Decomposers (3) Herbivores (4) Top carnivores
SOLUTION : (3)
Herbivores convert plant matter into animal matter.

Example - 5 Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is given by the formula

(1) NPP = GPP × 100 (2) NPP = GDP – secondary productivity
(3) NPP = GPP – respiration rate (4) NPP = GPP/100
SOLUTION : (3)
GPP is gross primary productivity.

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Example - 6 Pseudomonas is an important component nitrogen cycle. It

(1) Fixes elemental nitrogen (2) Produces elemental nitrogen
(3) Transfer nitrogen (4) Changes ammonium nitrogen to nitrate state
SOLUTION : (2)
Pseudomonas is a denitrifying bacteria which convert ionic forms of nitrogen into nitrogen gas

Example - 7 Sedimentary cycle having a small gaseous component is found in

(1) Phosphorus (2) Nitrogen (3) Carbon (4) Sulphur
SOLUTION : (4)
Sulphur is absorbed from soil in form of sulphates.

Example - 8 Ecosystems obtain nitrogen from outside through the process of

(1) Industrial fixation (2) Electrochemical and photochemical fixation
(3) Biological fixation (4) All of the above
SOLUTION : (4)
N2 gas in inert and unreactive therefore it is first changed to nitrates,nitrites or ammonium.

Example - 9 Lithosphere is reservoir of

(1) Carbon (2) Oxygen (3) Phosphorus (4) Nitrogen
SOLUTION : (3)
Phosphorus has no gaseous stage .

Example - 10 Cycling of water in nature occurs approximately how many times in a year?
(1) 12 (2) 22 (3) 32 (4) 42
SOLUTION : (3)
Average residence time of water in atmosphere is approx. 10-15 days

Example - 11 Which is a characteristic of climax stage of plant succession?

(1) Generalized niches (2) High NPP
(3) High nutrient conservation (4) Extrabiotic nature of nutrients
SOLUTION : (3)
Climax stage show specialized niches , low NPP and intrabiotic nature of nutrients

Example - 12 If producer is a large tree that supports a number of herbivorous animals which are further attacked by
ectoparasites, the pyramid of number shall be
(1) Inverted (2) Upright (3) Irregular (4) Spindle shaped
SOLUTION : (1)
No of parasites is greater than birds.

Example - 13 Ecological pyramids are also called

(1) Pyramid of number (2) Eltonian pyramids
(3) Pyramids of energy (4) Pyramids of biomass

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SOLUTION : (2)
It was first given by Charles Elton

Example - 14 In terrestrial ecosystem, maximum energy is present in

(1) T3 (2) T2 (3) T1 (4) T4
SOLUTION : (3)
In food chain there is a gradual loss of 10% in each successive trophic level.

Example - 15 In parasitic food chain, the pyramid of number is

(1) Linear (2) Upright (3) Inverted (4) Spindle shaped
SOLUTION : (3)
In such food chain number of parasites are maximum.

Example - 16 In grassland ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass is

(1) Linear (2) Upright (3) Inverted (4) Spindle shaped
SOLUTION : (2)
Producers are grasses having maximum numbers.

Example - 17 Primary succession refers to the development communities on a

(1) Newly exposed habitat with no record of earlier vegetation
(2) Pond freshly filled with water after a dry phase
(3) Forest clearing after devastating fire
(4) Freshly cleared crop field
SOLUTION : (1)
Forest clearing after devastating fire and Freshly cleared crop field are examples of secondary succession .

Example - 18 The end point of succession is determined by

(1) Ecesic causes (2) Initial causes (3) Biotic causes (4) Climatic causes
SOLUTION : (4)
Climate determine the climax community. Ecesis is establishment of community.

Example - 19 The development stages in a community are called as

(1) Climax changes (2) Biological changes (3) Seral changes (4) Climatic changes
SOLUTION : (3)
Intermediate stages of succession are also called seral communities.

Example - 20 Phytoplanktons in the hydrosere constitute

(1) members of climax community (2) pioneer community
(3) first seral members (4) All of the above
SOLUTION : (2)
Phytoplanktons are pionners in pond succession.

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MIND MAP

Abiotic
 Inorganic materials, soil, water Forest ecosystem
air, temperature, light, etc. Grassland ecosystem
Components Types
Ecosystem Desert ecosystem
 Producers, consumers and Aquatic (freshwater
decomposers. and marine ecosystem)

Gross primary productivity

Structure Net primary productivity Structure

Productivity
Species composition
Primary productivity  Food production.

Stratification Secondary productivity Decomposition

 Breakdown of organic matter.
Trophic Structure Net productivity  Occurs by fragmentation of
Functional aspects Based on detritus, leaching and
catabolism.

Ecological Pyramids Trophic level (T) Nutrient Cycling

 Graphical representation of  Producers (T1)  Storage and transfer of nutrients
the trophic structure  Herbivores (T2) through various components of
ecosystem so that nutrients are
 Carnivores (T3)
repeatedly used.

Pyramid of biomass
 Upright in terrestrial
Gaseous
habitats, but inverted in Energy flow
 Exists in atmosphere or
aquatic habitats.  It is unidirectional.
hydrosphere.
 Involves conversion of light
 Examples: Water cycle,
Pyramid of number energy into food energy, and
Nitrogen cycle, Carbon
 Mostly upright but inverted transfer of energy from one
cycle, etc.
in parasitic food-chain and organism to another.
spindle shaped in forest  Trophic levels are connected by
Sedimentary
ecosystem. the transfer of food or energy
 Exists in the earth crust.
along the food chain and food
Pyramid of number  Examples: Phosphorus and web (network of food chains).
 Always upright. Sulphur cycle.
 There is transfer of 10% energy
from one trophic level to another
(Raymond Lindemann).

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FUNDAMENTAL
1. Trophic levels are formed by: (1) psammosere (2) lithosere
(1) organism links in food chains (3) serule (4) hydrosere
(2) only plants (3) only animals
10. Which of the following represents the sedimentary type
(4) only carnivores
of nutrient cycle?
2. Per centage of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) (1) Nitrogen (2) Carbon
utilized in NPP is: (3) Phosphorus (4) Oxygen
(1) 1 – 5 (2) 2 – 10
11. Pick the odd one out (w.r.t. structure of ecosystem):
(3) 0.8 – 4 (4) 1.6 – 8
(1) Species composition (2) Standing state
3. Spindle shape pyramid is observed in: (3) Stratification (4) Food web
(1) ecological pyramid of number in grazing food chain
of tree ecosystem 12. Swollen stem bases, large leaves with drip tips are
(2) ecological pyramid of number in aquatic ecosystem characteristic of:
(3) ecological pyramid of energy in grassland (1) chaparrals (2) boreal forests
(4) ecological pyramid of biomass in aquatic ecosystem (3) tropical rain forests (4) savannah

4. Mycorrhizae are essential for mineral absorption and 13. In tropical rain forests figs plants are an example of:
mobilisation. They act as: (1) link species (2) network species
(1) keystone species (2) edge species (3) edge species (4) keystone species
(3) critical link species (4) microspecies 14. Who calculated trophic level efficiencies?
5. In biotic succession on bare rock, plant communities like (1) Elton (2) Rapport
Hypnum and Bryum are replaced by next seral (3) Lindeman (4) Winogradsky
communities namely: 15. Which one of the following shows correct relation?
(1) Aristida and Poa (2) Zizyhus and Rubus (1) GPP = NPP – Respiratory loss
(3) Rhizocarpon and Graphis (2) NPP = GPP – Respiratory loss
(4) Cymbopogon and Heteropogon (3) GPP = NPP + SP (4) SP = GPP – NPP
6. How much per cent of PAR is captured for GPP? 16. Pyramid of biomass is inverted in:
(1) 1–5% (2) 2–10% (1) tree ecosystem (2) grassland ecosystem
(3) 0.8 to 4% (4) 50% (3) Both (1) and (2) (4) forest ecosystem
7. Total interacting animals and plants in any well-defined 17. Percentage ratio of energy in biomass production at one
field or pond is known as: trophic level and that of the previous trophic level is:
(1) Biosphere (2) Biome (1) ecological efficiency (2) assimilation efficiency
(3) Community (4) Ecosystem (3) trophic level efficiency(4) more than one of these
8. Which statement is correct regarding man-made 18. An example of key stone species is:
ecosystems? (1) pollinating birds (2) mycorrhiza
(1) They are highly efficient (3) top carnivores (4) decomposers
(2) They are poor in diversity
19. The available biomass for the consumption of herbivores
(3) They are vulnerable to drought, floods and diseases
and decomposers is:
(4) All are correct
(1) GPP (2) NPP
9. When succession starts in ponds, pools, lakes and (3) secondary productivity
marshes, the sere is? (4) community productivity

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20. The detritus in detrivorous food chain represents the (1) the importance of biodiversity to the ecosystem
trophic level: (2) ecosystem extinctions
(1) T1 (2) T2 (3) T4 (4) T0 (3) ecosystem distribution
(4) relationship of biodiversity and area
21. Common herbivores of aquatic ecosystems are:
(1) Frogs (2) Birds 27. Wetlands:
(3) Molluscs (4) Mammals (1) make 60% of land area (2) are less productive
22. Nutrient immobilization is: (3) recharge underground water
(1) nutrient incorporation in microbes so that they (4) have water sensitive vegetation
become resistant to leaching or washing out 28. Match the columns and choose the correct combinations:
(2) nutrient incorporation in microbes facilitating their I II
leaching (a) Tropical rain forest (i) Dioscorea
(3) water soluble inorganic nutrients percolate into soil
(b) Tropical deciduous forest (ii) Teak
horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts
(c) Temperate broad leaf forest (iii) Oak
(4) water soluble organic nutrients percolate into soil
horizon and get precipitated as available forms (d) Temperate coniferous forest (iv) Pinus

23. Robert Costanza and his colleagues have tried to put (1) (a)-ii, (b)-i, (c)-iv, (d)-iii (2) (a)-i, (b)-ii, (c)-iii, (d)-iv
price tags on nature's life support services. Ecosystem (3) (a)-iii, (b)-ii, (c)-i, (d)-iv(4) (a)-iv, (b)-iii, (c)-ii, (d)-i
services are largely taken for granted. According to this 29. Which of the following ecosystems has the least mean
concept the most valuable ecosystem service is (w.r.t. NPP (ton/ha/yr)?
price): (1) Savannah
(1) recreation (2) nutrient cycling (2) Temperate coniferous forest
(3) soil formation (4) climate regulation (3) Temperate grassland
24. What is a keystone species? (4) Temperate deciduous forest
(1) A species which adds up to only a small proportion 30. A large regional unit characterized by a major vegetation
of the total biomass of a community, yet has a huge type and associated fauna found in specific climate zone,
impact on the community's organization and survival is called:
(2) A common species that has plenty of biomass, yet (1) Landscape (2) Ecosystem
has a fairly low impact on the community's (3) Biome (4) Biosphere
organisation
31. The respiration cost at carnivore level in a food chain is
(3) A rare species that has minimal impact on the biomass
approximately:
and on other species in the community
(1) 10% (2) 20%
(4) A dominant species that constitutes a large
(3) 30% (4) 60%
proportion of the biomass and which affects many
others species 32. Tundra is:
(1) absent in arctic reason
25. Rate of increase in biomass by heterotrophs or consumers
(2) a climatic zone (3) a biome
per unit time and area is known as:
(4) absent in mountain tops
(1) community productivity
(2) secondary productivity 33. Which is not true for wetlands?
(3) net primary productivity (1) They function as sedimentation traps
(4) gross primary productivity (2) They recharge ground water
(3) They produce a dense mat called sod
26. David Tilman's long term ecosystem experiments using
(4) They purify run off water
outdoor plots provide some tentative answers regarding:

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34. Which is not true for a grassland? 43. A tree less biome is:
(1) Not found in temperate regions (1) Grasslands (2) Chaparral
(2) Extensive ramifying root system (3) Taiga (4) Tundra
(3) Low productivity due to absence of trees
44. In which of the following ecosystems species diversity
(4) Maintained by herbivores and periodic fibre
is the lowest?
35. Albedo is: (1) Grassland (2) Deciduous forest
(1) ability to regenerate (2) ability to deplete O3 (3) Tundra (4) Tropical rain forest
(3) ability of a surface to reflect light
45. The type of food chain in which the energy rich organic
(4) ability to maintain homeostasis
matter produced by producers is decomposed by
36. Percentage of NPP in relation to gross primary microbes and converted into energy rich compounds is
productivity is called: called:
(1) ecological efficiency (2) trophic level efficiency (1) Detritus food chain (2) Grazing food chain
(3) assimilation efficiency (3) Parasitic food chain (4) Predator food chain
(4) net production efficiency
46. The 10% law of energy transfer in food chains was given
37. The forests which shows contrasting seasonal aspects by:
are? (1) Stanley (2) Tansley
(1) tropical rain forest (3) Lindeman (4) Weismann
(2) temperate broad leaf forest 47. Total amount of living material at the various trophic
(3) tropical deciduous forest levels of a food chain is depicted by pyramids of:
(4) temperate needle leaf forest (1) numbers (2) energy
38. A biome having a well developed grass cover (3) biomass (4) all of these
interspersed with scattered trees is a: 48. Maximum biodiversity is found in:
(1) grassland (2) savannah (1) tropical rain forests
(3) desert (4) temperate forest (2) temperate rain forests
39. Covering of harvested fields with plant litter, straw, (3) mangrove vegetation
grasses etc. in order to retain moisture is called: (4) tundra
(1) Terracing (2) Mulching 49. Animals living at the bottom of the sea are known as:
(3) Contour Bunding (4) Reforestation (1) Lentic (2) Pelagic
40. Per capita forest area in India is _____ ha per person: (3) Benthic (4) Lotic
(1) 0.06 (2) 0.64 50. Mr. X is eating curd/yoghurt. For his food intake in a
(3) 1.6 (4) 6.4 food chain he should be considered as occupying:
41. Slash and burn agriculture is also called: (1) first trophic level (2) second trophic level
(1) Shifting cultivation (3) third trophic level (4) fourth trophic level
(2) Taungya system
(3) Social forestry
(4) Production forestry

42. Which of the following is a keystone species in tropical

rain forest?
(1) Monkeys (2) Bats
(3) Ficus carica (4) Ficus religiosa

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ENABLE
1. About 70% of total global carbon is found in: (3) both producers and decomposers outnumber and
(1) oceans (2) forests outweigh the carnivores and herbivores
(3) grasslands (4) agroecosystems (4) producers outnumber or outweigh the herbivores,
herbivores outnumber or outweigh the carnivores
2. Secondary carnivores belong to which trophic level in
food chain of ecosystem? 8. Pyramid of numbers is inverted in the case of:
(1) T1 (2) T2 (1) pond ecosystem (2) grassland ecosystem
(3) T3 (4) T4 (3) single tree ecosystem for a parasitic food chain
(4) both (2) and (3)
3. The percentage of incident solar radiations trapped by
plants to produce gross primary productivity is: 9. Nutrient cycles are of _____________ types:
(1) net production efficiency (1) seven (2) four
(2) photosynthetic efficiency (3) six (4) two
(3) assimalation efficiency 10. The phosphates remain outside the natural cycle for a
(4) ecological efficiency long time:
4. Who coined the term ecological succession? (1) when they form compounds with metals
(1) Hodges (2) Odum (2) when they are incorporated in bone and teeth
(3) King (4) Hult (3) when the bodies of the organisms excrete and
decompose
5. Primary productivity:
(4) both (1) and (2)
(1) is equal to the standing crop of an ecosystem.
(2) is greatest in freshwater ecosystem. 11. Ecosystem maintains functional balance or homeostasis
(3) is the rate of conversion of light to chemical energy because:
in an ecosystem. (1) carring capacity (2) self regulation
(4) is inverted in some aquatic ecosystems. (3) feedback
(4) more than one option is correct
6. Select the correct combination of statements regarding
the characteristics of productivity: 12. Which of the following process helps in nutrient
I. The rate of biomass production is called productivity conservation?
and is expressed in terms of kcal m–2 (1) Mineralization (2) Immobilization
II. Gross primary productivity is rate of production of (3) Leaching (4) Nitrification
biomass during photosynthesis 13. Insectivorous plants are:
III. Gross primary productivity minus respiration loss is (1) primary producer
called net primary productivity (2) secondary consumer
IV. Primary productivity depends only on the plant (3) secondary producer
species inhabiting a particular area. (4) more than one option is correct
The correct statements are
14. Which of the following is common feature of DFC and
(1) I, II and III (2) II and III
GFC?
(3) II, III and IV (4) II and IV
(1) Major conduit for energy flow in aquatic ecosystem
7. In most ecosystems: (2) Size of organism commonly increase at higher trophic
(1) decomposers outnumber and outweigh the level
herbivores (3) Source of energy is Sun
(2) producers outnumber or outweigh the carnivores (4) Always begins with producers

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15. Vertical distribution of different species occupying (1) soil composition (2) grain size
different levels is called: (3) aggregation (4) light intensity
(1) Stratification 23. In a forest ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy
(2) Scarification (3) Succession flows through the:
(4) More than one option is correct (1) Grazing food chain (2) Detritus food chain
16. The process by which w ater soluble inorganic nutrients (3) Predator food chain (4) Parasitic food chain
go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as
24. Which of the following is correct statement w.r.t.
unavailable salts is called:
secondary succession?
(1) Fragmentation (2) Leaching
(1) It begins in areas where natural biotic communities
(3) Catabolism (4) Humification
have been destroyed
17. Given imaginary pyramid could be with more than one (2) It takes place in newly created pond, bare rock and
possibilities are as below. Which is correct interpretation? abandoned farm lands
T4 (3) It is faster than primary succession
T3 (4) More than one option is correct
T2
25. All succession whether taking place in water or on land,
T1
proceeds to a similar climax community called:
(1) Representing aquatic ecosystem for biomass
(1) Cyclic climax (2) Mesic
(2) Not applicable for forest ecosystem (w.r.t. energy
(3) Seral community (4) Disclimax
pyramid)
(3) For grassland ecosystem this is correct 26. The mineral composition of soils depends on the minerals
representation for pyramid of number but not of in the:
biomass. (1) parent material and the extent of weathering
(4) Representing pyramid of number for pond. (2) climate, living organisms
(3) time and topography (4) all of these
18. Which one of the following belongs to more than one
trophic levels? 27. Select an incorrect statement for soil and its formation:
(1) Lion (2) Grasshopper (1) The soil profile development is mainly governed by
(3) Insectivorous plant (4) Cow the climate and the kind of vegetation.
(2) In desert soils, the top soil has little or no humus.
19. Find incorrect statement w.r.t. primary succession:
(3) The subsoil is a mixture of sand, clay, minerals and
(1) Lichen is pioneer community in lithosere
salts
(2) Formation of soil does not take place
(4) In tropical rain forests, dense clay subsoil, heavy
(3) The establishment of new biotic community is
rainfall, and high temperatures result in nutrient-rich
generally slow
and shallow soils
(4) With time water body is converted into land
28. The proportion of mineral particles of different sizes in
20. Base of the ecological pyramid is occupied by:
soil represents its texture. Mineral particles in soil vary
(1) producer (2) decomposer
greatly in size. Those between 0.2 and 2 mm are
(3) primary consumer (4) secondary consumer
called_______, 0.02 and 0.2 mm ________, 0.002 and
21. Annual fixation of carbon through photosynthesis in 0.02 mm ________and those less than 0.002 mm _______:
biosphere is: (1) coarse sand, fine sand, silt, clay
(1) 4 × 103 kg (2) 4 × 1013 kg (2) fine sand, coarse sand, silt, clay
30
(3) 4 × 10 kg (4) 4 × 10 kg (3) coarse sand, fine sand, clay, silt
22. Mark the odd one w.r.t. characteristics which determine (4) fine sand, coarse sand, clay, silt
the percolation and water holding capacity of the soils?

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Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

29. Freshly dead and partially decomposed plant and animal 37. In a food chain, herbivores are:
organic matter in soil is called: (1) primary consumers (2) primary producers
(1) detritus (2) litter (3) decomposers (4) secondary consumers
(3) humus (4) both (1) and (2)
38. Food chains are met only in the:
30. Decomposed organic matter in soil is called: (1) sea (2) forests
(1) detritus (2) litter (3) deserts (4) all of these
(3) humus (4) both (1) and (2)
39. Fertilizer obtained from sea bird along the west of Chile
31. Select an correct statement for ecological succession: and Peru is:
(1) The average size of individuals generally increases (1) Guano (2) Bone meal
(2) The efficiency of energy use and nutrient (3) Dung (4) Urea
conservation increase
40. Which is best for plant growth?
(3) The community organisation becomes more complex
(1) Loam soil (2) Sandy soil
in the climax community
(3) Gravel (4) Clay soil
(4) All are correct
32. Always upright shape of pyramid is in: 41. The succession initiated in pond of about 6 metres depth
(1) biomass pyramid (2) energy pyramid exhibits one of the following stages:
(3) number pyramid (4) none of these (1) Floating plants, submerged plants, reeds, herbs,
shrubs, trees
33. Select an incorrect statement for ecological succession:
(2) Submerged plants, floating plants, herbs, shrubs,
(1) The terminal stage of succession is represented by
trees
the climax community
(3) Submerged plants, reeds, herbs, floating plants,
(2) Phytoplankton and zooplankton constitute the
shrubs, trees
pioneer community in pond
(4) Shrubs, trees, submerged plants, floating plants,
(3) Lichens and herbaceous plants are the pioneer
reeds, herbs
species on a bare rock
(4) Climax community is generally dominated by trees 42. These belong to the category of primary consumers:
34. Select an incorrect statement for ecological succession: (1) insects and cattles (2) snakes and frogs
(1) The animal succession is easily visible (3) fishes (4) eagles
(2) The more common type of succession is the 43. Animals which occupy the same trophic level are?
secondary succession (1) tiger and bees (2) deer and bees
(3) The reappearance and establishment of communities (3) snake and earthworm (4) crow and cow
in such areas is called secondary succession
44. In an ecosystem, decomposers include:
(4) The assemblage of pioneer species forms the pioneer
(1) bacteria and fungi
community
(2) only microscopic organisms
35. Maintenance of soil fertility without addition of nutrients
(3) both (1) and (2) (4) All of these
is due to:
(1) crop residue (2) floods 45. Driving force of ecosystem is:
(3) activity of micro-organisms (1) producers (2) carbohydrates in plants
(4) favourable temperature (3) biomass (4) solar energy

36. The storage of energy at consumer’s level is: 46. The pyramid that cannot be inverted in a stable
(1) gross primary productivity ecosystem is pyramid of:
(2) secondary productivity (1) number (2) energy
(3) NPP (4) primary productivity (3) biomass (4) all of these

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 Vidyamandir Classes Ecosystem

47. Flow of energy declines from lower to higher trophic level 49. Which of the following is the correct sequence in food
in ecosystem is mainly explained by: chain?
(1) first law of thermodynamics (1) Fallen leaves, bacteria, insect, larvae, birds
(2) second law of thermodynamics (2) Phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish
(3) both (1) and (2) (3) Grasses, fox, rabbit
(4) none of these (4) Grasses, chameleon, insects, birds

48. Deep black soil is considered to be highly productive 50. The pyramid of numbers deals with the number of:
due to high proportion of: (1) species in a given area
(1) silt and earthworm (2) clay and humus (2) sub-species in a community
(3) gravel and Ca 2+ (4) sand and Zn (3) individuals in a community
(4) individuals in a trophic level

EFFICIENT
1. Carnivores are usually: 9. The species that occur in different geographical regions
(1) primary consumers are called:
(2) secondary consumers (1) Sympatric (2) Allopatric
(3) secondary or tertiary consumers (3) Ecological equivalents (4) None of these
(4) decomposers rather than consumers
10. The nature of climax community ultimately depends on:
2. If carbon dioxide is withdrawn from the biosphere, which (1) climate (2) soil organism
organism would first experience negative effects? (3) bed rock
(1) Primary producers (2) Producers (4) pool of available nutrients
(3) Secondary consumers (4) Tertiary consumers
11. Biotic components of ecosystem include:
3. Ecosystem has two components they are: (1) producers (2) consumers
(1) plants and animals (2) weeds and trees (3) decomposers (4) all of these
(3) biotic and abiotic (4) none of these
12. Primary succession refers to the development of
4. In lake ecosystem, pyramid of biomass is: communities on a:
(1) upright (2) inverted (1) pond, freshly filled with water after a dry phase
(3) anything is possible (4) none of these (2) freshly cleared crop field
5. Man is: (3) newly exposed habitat with no record of earlier
(1) producer (2) primary consumer vegetation
(3) secondary consumer (4) both (2) and (3) (4) forest clearing after devastating fire

6. Xeric condition refers to: 13. If we completely remove the decomposers from an
(1) low temperature (2) low humidity ecosystem, the ecosystem functioning will be adversely
(3) high evaporation (4) extreme temperature affected because:
(1) herbivores will not receive solar energy
7. Second most important trophic level in lakes is:
(2) rate of decomposition of other components will be
(1) phytoplankton (2) zooplankton
very high
(3) neuston (4) benthos
(3) mineral movement will be blocked
8. At each trophic level the energy value: (4) energy flow will be blocked
(1) remains same (2) decreases
14. Which one of the following is not used for construction
(3) increases (4) none of these
of ecological pyramids?

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Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

(1) Fresh weight (2) Dry weight (1) phytoplankton (2) rooted plants
(3) Number of individuals (4) Rate of energy flow (3) macrophytes (4) green algae
15. Select an incorrect statement for ecosystem: 22. Select an incorrect statement for decomposers or
(1) Ecosystems vary greatly in size saprotrophs:
(2) Ecosystems can be recognised as self-regulating and (1) They release different enzymes from their bodies into
self-sustaining units of landscape the dead and decaying plant and animal remains
(3) In nature, two major categories of ecosystems may (2) They are heterotrophic organisms, consisting mostly
be distinguished; terrestrial and aquatic of bacteria and fungi
(4) Spacecrafts and aquariums may not be considered (3) Unlike consumers, the decomposers do not ingest
as ecosystems their food.
16. Select an incorrect statement for abiotic components of (4) The intracellular digestion of the dead remains, leads
ecosystem: to the release of simpler inorganic substances which
(1) Comprise inorganic materials are then utilised by the decomposers
(2) The climatic parameters like solar radiation and 23. Nutrients necessary for the growth of living organisms
temperature determine the abiotic conditions are accumulated in:
(3) Comprise dead organic matter (1) the biomass and in abiotic components like soil
(4) Abiotic substances are present in soil, water but not (2) in biotic components only
in air
(3) in abiotic components like soil only
17. In deep aquatic ecosystems which of the following are (4) the biomass and in abiotic components like soil, air
major autotrophs: etc.
(1) phytoplankton (2) rooted plants
24. Which of the following is not an example of material
(3) macrophytes (4) green algae
transfer from one to another ecosystem?
18. Producers are the autotrophic organisms, which produce (1) Aquatic birds diving to catch fish in water bodies
their own food. Producers include: (2) Soil material may be eroded from a forest ecosystem
(1) a variety of photosynthetic bacteria and washed into the adjoining stream,
(2) chemosynthetic bacteria (3) Leaves of riverbank trees dropping in river water
(3) photosynthetic protozoa (4) Dust blown from a desert ecosystem may deposit
(4) all of these over another ecosystem located miles away
19. The first link in any food-chain is always a green plant 25. Trophic structure may be described in terms of the amount
because: of ________material, called standing ______
(1) they are widely distributed ___present in ________trophic levels at a given time:
(2) they are firmly fixed to the soil (1) living, state, different (2) Nonliving, crop, different
(3) they alone have a capacity to fix atmospheric CO2 in (3) living, crop, different (4) living, crop, same
the presence of sunlight
26. The standing crop is commonly expressed as the:
(4) all of the above
(1) number or biomass of organisms per unit time
20. In shallow water ecosystems which of the following are
(2) number or biomass of organisms per unit area
major autotrophs:
(3) number or biomass of living and non-living materials
(1) phytoplankton (2) rooted plants
per unit area
(3) macrophytes (4) green algae
(4) number or biomass of living and non-living materials
21. When the environmental conditions are optimum, the per unit time
______________ may produce as much food as
27. The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of either
produced by the larger shrubs and trees on unit area
fresh or dry weight. Dry weight is preferred:
basis:

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 Vidyamandir Classes Ecosystem

(1) to avoid variations in weight due to diurnal moisture 32. The rate of biomass production by consumers is called:
differences in biomass (1) Primary production (2) Primary productivity
(2) to avoid variations in weight due to annual moisture (3) Secondary productivity
differences in biomass (4) Secondary production
(3) to avoid variations in weight due to seasonal
33. The amounts of nutrients, such as _________present in
moisture differences in biomass
the soil at any given time, is referred to as the standing
(4) all of these
state:
28. Select an incorrect statement for ecosystem: (1) nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon
(1) At large, spatial scale, all ecosystems are (2) nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium
interconnected by flow of energy and transfer of (3) nitrogen, phosphorus and magnesium
materials (4) nitrogen, phosphorus and manganese
(2) Sometimes, ecosystems intergrate with each other
34. Primary productivity refers to the rate at which ______is
(3) Ecosystems can generally be physically delineated.
captured by _________for the synthesis of energy rich
(4) Leaves of riverbank trees dropping in river water
organic compounds through __________:
represent transfer of energy and material from aquatic
(1) CO2, producers, photosynthesis
to terrestrial ecosystem
(2) sunlight, producers, chemosynthesis
29. Productivity in ecosystems is of _________kinds: (3) sunlight, producers, photosynthesis
(1) two (2) three (4) sunlight, consumers, photosynthesis
(3) four (4) five
35. Primary productivity has ______ aspects:
30. Select an incorrect statement for ecosystem and trophic (1) two (2) three
levels: (3) four (4) five
(1) The standing states of nutrients differ from one
36. The total organic matter (biomass) production is called:
ecosystem to another, or with seasons even in the
(1) Gross primary production
same ecosystem.
(2) Net primary production
(2) Ecosystems possess a natural tendency to persist
(3) Gross secondary production
(3) Carnivores perform the function of utilising part of
(4) Net secondary production
the plant production, and in turn, serve as food for
herbivores 37. The balance energy or biomass remaining after meeting
(4) Decomposers carry out the function of breaking the requirement of respiration of producers, is called:
down complex organic materials into simpler (1) Gross primary production
inorganic products, which can be used by the (2) Net primary production
producers. (3) Gross secondary production
(4) Net secondary production
31. A knowledge of the rates at which different processes
occur in ecosystem is necessary to understand the 38. The net primary productivity results in the accumulation
interrelations of ecosystem structure and function. The of plant biomass, which serves as the food of:
key functional aspects of the ecosystem are all of the (1) herbivores and decomposers
following, except : (2) carnivores and decomposers
(1) Productivity and energy flow (3) herbivores and carnivores
(2) Nutrient cycling (4) all of these
(3) Development and stabilisation 39. At the trophic level of consumers, the rate at which food
(4) Stratification energy is assimilated, is called?

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Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

(1) Gross primary production (1) above ground detritus (2) humus
(2) Net primary production (3) litter fall (4) both (1) and (3)
(3) Secondary productivity
46. The below ground detritus is primarily composed of dead
(4) Net secondary productivity
roots and is also called:
40. The magnitude of primary productivity depends on the (1) root detritus (2) litter fall
photosynthetic capacity of producers and the prevailing (3) humus (4) both (1) and (3)
environmental conditions, particularly:
47. Decomposition involves several processes. These
(1) solar radiation, temperature and atmospheric
processes can be categorised as:
humidity
(1) fragmentation of detritus
(2) solar radiation, temperature and soil moisture.
(2) leaching (3) catabolism
(3) atmospheric humidity, temperature and soil moisture.
(4) all of these
(4) solar radiation, temperature and CO2
48. The fragmentation of detritus, mainly due to the action
41. In deep oceans, nutrients often become limiting for
of _______ that causes it to break into smaller particles:
productivity. _________ is regarded as the most
(1) detritivores (2) fungi and bacteria
important nutrient limiting productivity in marine
(3) actinomycetes (4) earthworm
ecosystems:
(1) Nitrogen (2) Phosphorus 49. Under certain conditions, soil nutrients get tied up with
(3) Calcium (4) Potassium the biomass of __________and become temporarily
unavailable to other organisms. Such incorporation of
42. In tropical regions, primary productivity may be sustained
nutrients in living microbes is called ___________.
throughout the year, provided adequate ____________
(1) detritivores, nutrient immobilisation
remains available:
(2) microbes, nutrient mobilisation
(1) light (2) temperature
(3) microbes, nutrient immobilisation
(3) CO2 (4) soil moisture
(4) microbes, leaching
43. In aquatic ecosystems, productivity is generally limited
by: 50. Select an incorrect statement for decomposition of dead
(1) light (2) temperature organic matter / humus:
(3) CO2 (4) soil moisture (1) Mineralisation leads to accumulation of a dark
coloured amorphous substance, called humus.
44. Which layer of soil is the main site for decomposition
(2) Humus is highly resistant to microbial action and
processes in the ecosystem?
undergoes extremely slow decomposition
(1) upper layer (2) lower layer
(3) Humus serves as a reservoir of nutrients.
(3) middle layer
(4) Mineralisation results in the release of inorganic
(4) all layers are equally important
substances and available nutrients in the soil.
45. Dried plant parts, like leaves, bark, flowers, etc., and dead
remains of animals, including faecal matter, drop over the
soil and constitute the:

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 Vidyamandir Classes Ecosystem

IMPECCABLE
1. Which one of the following ecosystem types has highest 8. Match column I (Indian forest types) with Column II
annual net primary productivity? [AIPMT 2007] (dominant tree genera) and choose the correct option:
(1) tropical deciduous forest [Kerala PMT 2008]
(2) temperate evergreen forest Column I Column II
(3) temperate deciduous forest A. Tropical rain forest I. Hopea
(4) tropical rain forest B. Tropical deciduous forest II. Shorea
C. Temperate broad leaf forest III. Quercus
2. Stability of ecosystem depends upon:[UP CPMT 2007]
D. Temperate coniferous forest IV. Picea
(1) primary productivity
(1) A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV (2) A-II, B-II, C-IV, D-III
(2) interchange between producers and consumers
(3) A-III, B-II, C-I, D-IV (4) A-IV, B-III, C-II, D-I
(3) number of producers
(4) number of consumers 9. Which one of the following is considered as pioneer
community in xerarch? [Kerala PMT 2008]
3. Pyramid of energy in aquatic ecosystem is: (1) annual herb (2) perennial herb
(1) always straight upright [UP CPMT 2007] (3) shrub (4) lichen
(2) always inverted (3) bell shaped
10. The final stable community in ecological succession is:
(4) none of these
[DUMET 2009]
4. Term ecosystem was given by: [BHU PMT 2007] (1) pioneers (2) sere
(1) Odum (2) Haeckel (3) climax (4) carnivores
(3) Tansley (4) Mobius and Forbes
11. Which one of the following types of organisms occupy
5. Which ecosystem has the highest primary productivity? more than one trophic level in a pond ecosystem?
[BHU PMT 2007] [CBSE AIPMT 2009]
(1) pond (2) ocean (1) Phytoplankton (2) Fish
(3) desert (4) forest (3) Zooplankton (4) Frog
6. About 70% of total global carbon is found in: 12. In plant succession, when climax community is reached,
[AIPMT 2008] the net productivity? [J & K CET 2009]
(1) oceans (2) forests (1) continues to increase (2) becomes zero
(3) grasslands (4) agroecosystems (3) becomes reduced (4) becomes stable

7. Consider the following statements concerning food 13. If a single plant species is removed from a food web, then
chain: [AIPMT 2008] most likely: [AFMC 2009]
(a) removal of 80% tigers from an area resulted in greatly (1) an animal species will fill the unoccupied niche
increased growth of vegetation (2) other plants will produce enough food for herbivores
(b) removal of most of the carnivores resulted in an (3) dependent herbivores will have to find new food
increased population of deers sources
(c) the length of food chain is generally limited to 3-4 (4) carnivores will be unaffected by the loss
trophic levels due to energy loss 14. The assemblage of all the population of different species
(d) the length of food chain may vary from 2-8 trophic that function as an integrated unit through coevolved
levels metabolic transformation in a specific area is called:
Which two of the above statements are correct? [J & K CET 2009]
(1) (b) & (c) (2) (c) & (b) (1) biome (2) biotic community
(3) (a) & (d) (4) (a) & (b) (3) population (4) ecosystem

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Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

15. The correct sequence of plants in a hydrosere is: (1) Sex-ratio (2) Stratificiation
[CBSE AIPMT 2009] (3) Natality (4) Mortality
(1) Oak  Lantana  Scirpus  Pistia
19. The plants convert light into chemical energy with a
 Hydrilla  Volvox photosynthetic efficiency of: [Chandigarh CET 2010]
(2) Volvox  Hydrilla  Pistia  Scirpus
(1) 3 – 6% (2) 6 – 20%
 Lantana  Oak (3) 20 – 35 % (4) 35 – 41%
(3) Pistia  Volvox  Scirpus  Hydrilla  Oak
 Lantana 20. Ten percent law of energy transfer at successive trophic
(4) Oak  Lantana  Volvox  Hydrilla  Pistia levels in food chain was given by:
 Scirpus [Chandigarh CET 2010]
(1) Elton (2) Haeckel
16. The biomass available for consumption by the herbivores
(3) Lindman (4) Shimper
and the decomposers is called: [CBSE Prelims 2010]
(1) Gross primary productivity 21. What is the percentage of photosynthetically active
(2) Net primary productivity radiation (PAR) in the incident solar radiation?
(3) Secondary productivity (1) 100% (2) 50% [HP PMT 2010]
(4) Standing crop (3) 1 – 5% (4) 2 – 10%
17. Study the cycle shown below and select the option which 22. Primary succession is development of communities on:
gives correct words for all the four blanks A, B, C and D? (1) Cleared forest area [HP PMT 2010]
[CBSE Main PMT 2010] (2) Previously unoccupied sites
(3) Freshly harvested crop field
Atmospheric N2
(4) Pond filled after a day season

Biological Industrial Electrical 23. Which one of the following statements is correct for
A
N2 fixation N2 fixation N2 fixation secondary succession? [CBSE AIPMT 2011]
NH3 NO2 NO 3 (1) It occurs on a deforested site
Soil ‘N’ Pool (2) It follows primary succession
(3) It is similar to primary succession except that it has a
B (Uptake) relatively fast pace
(4) It begins on a bare rock

Decaying biomass C 24. Which one of the following statements for pyramid of
energy is incorrect, whereas the remaining three are
correct? [CBSE AIPMT 2011]
D
(1) It show energy content of different trophic level of
(1) A-Nitrification, B-Ammonification, C-Animal,
organisms
D-Plants
(2) It is inverted in shape
(2) A-Denitrification, B-Ammonification, C-Plants,
(3) It is upright in shape
D-Animals
(4) Its base is broad
(3) A-Nitrification, B-Denitrification, C-Animals,
D-Plants 25. Both hydrarch and xerarch successions lead to:
(4) A-Denitrification, B-Nitrification, C-Plants, [CBSE Main PMT 2011]
D-Animals (1) medium water conditions
18. Which one of the following is one of the characteristics (2) xeric conditions (3) highly dry conditions
of a biological community? [CBSE Prelims 2010] (4) excessive wet conditions

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 Vidyamandir Classes Ecosystem

26. The breakdown of detritus into smaller particles by (2) Level one PP is “pipal trees” and the level SC is
earthworm is a process called:[CBSE Main PMT 2011] “sheep”
(1) Humification (2) Fragmentation (3) Level PC is “rats” and levl SC is “cats”
(3) Mineralization (4) Catabolism (4) Level PC is “insects” and level SC is “small
insectivorous birds”
27. Which of the following groups is absolutely essential
functional component of ecosystem? [DUMET 2011] 34. Which one of the following is not a gaseous
(1) Producers biogeochemical cycle in ecosystem?
(2) Detritivores [CBSE Prelims 2012]
(3) Producers and herbivores (1) Phosphorus cycle (2) Nitrogen cycle
(4) Producers and detritivores (3) Carbon cycle (4) Sulphur cycle

28. Littoral zone is located along the: [DUMET 2011] 35. Identify the likely organisms (A), (B), (C) and (D) in the
(1) high mountains (2) sea food web shown below: [CBSE Main PMT 2012]
(3) rivers (4) desert lion
hawks
29. In a lake, phytoplankton grow in abundance in: owls foxesgarden snakes
[DUMET 2011] lizard (C)
(1) littoral zone (2) limnetic zone grass
(A) mice (B) hopper (D) sparrow
(3) profundal zone (4) benthic region

30. Which one of the following is not a functional unit of an Vegetation seeds
ecosystem? [CBSE Prelims 2012] (1) A-rat, B-dog, C-tortoise, D-crow
(1) Decomposition (2) Productivity (2) A-squirrel, B-cat, C-rat, D-pigeon
(3) Stratification (4) Energy flow (3) A-deer, B-rabbit, C-frog, D-rat
(4) A-dog, B-squirrel, C-bat, D-deer
31. Identify the possible link “A” in the following food chain
Plant  insec t  frog  "A"  Eagle 36. The rate of formation of new organic matter by rabbit in a
[CBSE Prelims 2012] grass land is called: [CBSE Main PMT 2012]
(1) Wolf (2) Cobra (1) net primary productivity
(3) Parrot (4) Rabbit (2) Gross primary productivity
(3) Net productivity
32. The upright pyramid of number is absent in:
(4) Secondary productivity
[CBSE Prelims 2012]
(1) Forest (2) Lake 37. The second stage of hydrosere is occupied by plants
(3) Grassland (4) Pond like: [CBSE Prelims 2012]
(1) Salix (2) Vallisneria
33. Given below is an imaginary pyramid of numbers. What
(3) Azolla (4) Typha
could be one of the possibilities about certain organisms
at some of the different levels? [CBSE Prelims 2012] 38. Natural reservoir of phosphorus is: [NEET 2013]
TC 10 (1) Animal bones (2) Rock
(3) Fossils (4) Sea water
SC 50
PC 500 39. Secondary productivity is rate of formation of new
PP organic matter by: [NEET 2013]
(1) Level PP is “phytoplanktons” in sea and “Whale” (1) Parasite (2) Consumer
on top level TC (3) Decomposer (4) Producer

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Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

40. Given below is a simplified model of phosphorus cycling (3) the establishment of a new biotic community is very
in a terrestrial ecosystem with four blanks (A-D). Identify fast in its primary phase.
the blanks: [AIPMT 2014] (4) the numbers and types of animals remain constant.

Consumers C 44. In which of the following interactions both partners are

adversely affected? [AIPMT 2015]
D (1) Mutualism (2) Competition
A
(3) Predation (4) Parasitism
45. In which of the following both pairs have correct
Uptake
Soil solution combination? [AIPMT 2015]
Run off
Gaseous nutrient cycle Sulphur and Phosphorus
(1)
B Sedimentary nutrient cycle Carbon and Nitrogen
Gaseous nutrient cycle Carbon and Nitrogen
A B C D (2)
Rock Sedimentary nutrient cycle Sulphur and Phosphorus
(1) Producers Litter Fall Detritus
Minerals Gaseous nutrient cycle Carbon and Sulphur
Rock (3)
(2) Detritus Litter Fall Producers Sedimentary nutrient cycle Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Minerals
(3) Rock Gaseous nutrient cycle Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Litter Fall Producers Detritus
Minerals (4)
Rock Sedimentary nutrient cycle Carbon and Sulphur
(4) Detritus Producers Litter Fall
Minerals
46. The mass of living material at a trophic level at a particular
41. If 20 J of energy is trapped at producer level, then how time is called: [AIPMT 2015]
much energy will be available to peacock as food in the (1) Net primary productivity
following chain? [AIPMT 2014] (2) Standing crop
Plant → mice → snake → peacock (3) Standing state
(1) 0.0002 J (2) 0.02 J (4) Gross primary productivity
(3) 0.002 J (4) 0.2 J
47. Secondary Succession takes place on / in: [AIPMT 2015]
42. Match the following and select the correct options: (1) Newly created pond (2) Newly cooled lava
[AIPMT 2014] (3) Bare rock (4) Degraded forest
(a) Earthworm (i) Pioneer species
48. In an ecosystem the rate of production of organic matter
(b) Succession (ii) Detritivore
during photosynthesis is termed as:
(c) Ecosystem service (iii) Natality
(1) Secondary productivity
(d) Population growth (iv) Pollination
(2) Net productivity
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(3) Net primary productivity
(1) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
(4) Gross primary productivity
(2) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(3) (iv) (i) (iii) (ii) 49. The primary producers of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent
(4) (iii) (ii) (iv) (i) ecosystem are [NEET Phase-II 2016]
(1) green algae
43. During ecological succession: [AIPMT 2015]
(2) chemosynthetic bacteria
(1) the changes lead to a community that is in near
(3) blue-green algae
equilibrium with the environment and is called
(4) coral reefs
pioneer community
(2) the gradual and predictable change in species 50. Which of the following is a characteristic feature of
composition occurs in a given area cropland ecosystem? [NEET Phase-I 2016]

46 Impeccable Self Study Course for Medical Entrance

 Vidyamandir Classes Ecosystem

(1) Absence of weeds 53. Presence of plants arranged into well defined vertical
(2) Ecological succession layers depending on their height can be seen best in:
(3) Absence of soil organism [NEET 2017]
(4) Least genetic diversity (1) Tropical Savannah (2) Tropical Rain Forest
51. The term ecosystem was coined by (3) Grassland (4) Temperate Forest
[NEET Phase-I 2016] 54. What type of ecological pyramid would be obtained with
(1) E. Haeckel (2) E. Warming the following data? [NEET 2018]
(3) E.P. Odum (4) A. G. Tansley Secondary consumer : 120 g
52. Which ecosystem has the maximum biomass? Primary consumer : 60 g
[NEET 2017] Primary producer : 10 g
(1) Forest ecosystem (1) Pyramid of energy
(2) Grassland ecosystem (2) Upright pyramid of numbers
(3) Pond ecosystem (3) Inverted pyramid of biomass
(4) Lake ecosystem (4) Upright pyramid of biomass

ANSWERS TO PRACTICE EXERCISES

1. 2 2. 2 3. 4 4. 4 5. 4 6. 4 7. 2
8. 1 9. 2 10. 2

ANSWERS TO IN CHAPTER EXERCISES

A 1. 1 2. 2 3. 1 4. 3 5. 3 6. 2 7. 4
8. 1 9. 3 10. 1

1. 3 2. 1 3. 3 4. 4 5. 2 6. 3 7. 1
B
8. 2 9. 1 10. 4

Self Study Course for Medical Entrance Answers 47

Ecosystem Vidyamandir Classes

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
FUNDAMENTAL
1. 1 2. 4 3. 2 4. 3 5. 1 6. 2 7. 3
8. 4 9. 4 10. 3 11. 4 12. 3 13. 4 14. 3
15. 2 16. 1 17. 3 18. 3 19. 2 20. 1 21. 3
22. 1 23. 3 24. 1 25. 2 26. 1 27. 3 28. 2
29. 2 30. 3 31. 4 32. 3 33. 3 34. 3 35. 3
36. 4 37. 3 38. 2 39. 2 40. 2 41. 1 42. 3
43. 4 44. 3 45. 1 46. 3 47. 3 48. 1 49. 3
50. 3

ENABLE
1. 1 2. 4 3. 2 4. 4 5. 3 6. 1 7. 4
8. 3 9. 4 10. 2 11. 4 12. 2 13. 4 14. 2
15. 1 16. 2 17. 4 18. 3 19. 2 20. 1 21. 2
22. 4 23. 2 24. 4 25. 2 26. 1 27. 4 28. 1
29. 4 30. 3 31. 4 32. 2 33. 3 34. 1 35. 3
36. 2 37. 1 38. 4 39. 1 40. 1 41. 2 42. 1
43. 4 44. 3 45. 4 46. 2 47. 2 48. 2 49. 2
50. 4
EFFICIENT
1. 3 2. 1 3. 3 4. 2 5. 4 6. 2 7. 2
8. 2 9. 2 10. 1 11. 4 12. 3 13. 3 14. 1
15. 4 16. 4 17. 1 18. 4 19. 4 20. 3 21. 1
22. 4 23. 1 24. 1 25. 3 26. 2 27. 3 28. 4
29. 1 30. 3 31. 4 32. 3 33. 2 34. 3 35. 1
36. 1 37. 2 38. 1 39. 3 40. 2 41. 1 42. 4
43. 1 44. 1 45. 4 46. 1 47. 4 48. 1 49. 3
50. 1

IMPECCABLE
1. 4 2. 2 3. 1 4. 3 5. 1 6. 1 7. 1
8. 1 9. 4 10. 3 11. 4 12. 4 13. 3 14. 2
15. 2 16. 4 17. 2 18. 2 19. 1 20. 3 21. 2
22. 2 23. 1 24. 2 25. 1 26. 2 27. 4 28. 2
29. 1 30. 3 31. 2 32. 1 33. 4 34. 1 35. 3
36. 4 37. 2 38. 2 39. 2 40. 4 41. 2 42. 1
43. 2 44. 2 45. 2 46. 2 47. 4 48. 4 49. 2
50. 4 51. 4 52. 1 53. 2 54. 3

48 Answers Self Study Course for Medical Entrance