PART A: Structure (Questions 1–25)
Choose the word or phrase that best completes the sentence.
1. Although the newly developed telescope is far more sensitive than earlier models, it still
cannot detect objects that are ______ to be observed from Earth.
A. too distant
B. so distant that
C. distant enough
D. as distant as
2. Only after the committee members ______ the revised proposal did they agree to fund
the project.
A. had reviewed
B. reviewing
C. were reviewed
D. have been reviewing
3. The novel’s protagonist speaks in a dialect ______ difficult for non-native speakers to
understand.
A. it is
B. is
C. that is
D. being
4. Researchers claim that the new material will outperform traditional metals in applications
______ high durability.
A. requiring
B. require
C. to require
D. that required
5. Rarely ______ such a dramatic shift in atmospheric patterns over such a short period.
A. meteorologists have observed
B. have meteorologists observed
C. observed meteorologists
D. did meteorologists observing
6. The museum plans to open a new wing dedicated to artists ______ contributions shaped
early modernism.
A. whose
B. of whom
C. who they
D. of which
7. The more efficiently resources are allocated, ______ economic output tends to grow.
A. the more
B. more
C. the most
D. most
8. Situated at the crossroads of several trade routes, the ancient city prospered by offering
services to merchants ______ traveled across the region.
A. they
B. whom
C. who
D. whose
9. The professor insisted that all assignments ______ by the end of the week.
A. submitted
B. be submitted
C. must submit
D. being submitted
10.Archaeologists believe the site to be far older than previously assumed, ______ new
evidence of early settlement.
A. in spite
B. due
C. because
D. because of
11.The invention of the microprocessor marked a turning point in computing, ______
devices to become smaller and more powerful.
A. allowing
B. allowed
C. that allowed
D. to allow
12.Not until centuries later ______ its importance fully recognized.
A. the artifact was
B. was the artifact
C. the artifact has been
D. did the artifact
13.The company’s rapid global expansion surprised analysts, many of ______ had
predicted only moderate growth.
A. them
B. which
C. whose
D. whom
14.The purpose of the experiment is to determine whether the drug acts more quickly when
______ with food.
A. taking
B. taken
C. is taken
D. it takes
15.The new zoning law prohibits construction in areas ______ flooding is likely to occur.
A. where
B. which
C. what
D. whose
16.So complex ______ that even experienced engineers had difficulty understanding the
design.
A. the system is
B. is the system
C. the system
D. that system is
17.The lecture covered recent developments in astrophysics, none of ______ were
mentioned in the textbook.
A. that
B. which
C. whom
D. what
18.The speaker paused for several seconds, as if ______ the best way to explain the
concept.
A. considering
B. he considered
C. to consider
D. having considered
19.Many scientists argue that climate models, ______ imperfect, still provide important
predictions.
A. although
B. even though they are
C. which
D. despite
20.The process is so delicate that any sudden change in temperature ______ the results.
A. could have affected
B. is affecting
C. are likely affecting
D. could affect
21.The painting style is easily recognizable, characterized by bold colors and brushstrokes
______ the artist used to express movement.
A. that
B. what
C. where
D. whom
22.The treaty will not take effect until all member states ______ it.
A. will ratify
B. ratified
C. have ratified
D. ratify
23.The conference attracted scholars from around the world, ______ diversity enriched the
discussions.
A. their
B. whose
C. which
D. that
24.The new security measures are intended to protect confidential data, ______
unauthorized access has become increasingly common.
A. for
B. however
C. since
D. consequently
25.The professor presented the theory clearly, ______ students to understand its
implications.
A. enabling
B. to enable
C. enabled
D. and enable
PART B: Written Expression (Questions 26–50)
Identify the underlined part (A–D) that contains an error.
26.The committee **Ahas reached a decision only after several members **Bvoicing their
concerns **Cregarding the proposed budget **Dchanges.
27.The fossils **Adiscovered last year **Bare believed to be the **Colder ever found in
**Dthe region.
28.Despite **Aof being praised by critics, the film **Bfailed to attract **Clarge audiences
**Dglobally.
29.The experiment was conducted **Acarefully, **Bensuring that all variables **Cwere
controlled **Dand recorded accurately.
30.Advances in genetics **Ahas allowed scientists **Bto identify numerous genes
**Cassociated with inherited diseases **Dmore efficiently.
31.The artist’s later works, **Athat were produced during his time abroad, **Breflect a
distinct **Cshift in style **Dand technique.
32.The committee agreed that **Aeach of them should submit **Btheir final report **Cby the
end **Dof the month.
33.Had the researchers **Aknown about the contamination earlier, they **Bwill have
modified the **Cexperimental design **Daccordingly.
34.The new drug has been shown **Ato reduce inflammation, **Brelieving symptoms
**Cand improving patients’ mobility **Dsignificant.
35.The species, once **Athought to be extinct, has **Brecently been spotted **Cin several
remote forests **Dwhere logging is prohibited.
(Correct – no error)
36.A major **Achallenge in renewable energy is **Bstore excess power **Cgenerated
during peak production **Dperiods.
37.The professor emphasized **Athat data **Bmust be collected accurately **Cand that
every participant **Dwere informed of the purpose.
38.The spacecraft’s instruments **Acan detect even the faintest signals **Bemitting by
distant stars **Cwithin the observable **Duniverse.
39.Many historians argue **Athat the economic reforms **Bimplemented during the period
**Cwas essential in modernizing the **Dnation.
40.The company’s revenue increased **Asubstantial last year **Bdue to its expansion
**Cinto new markets **Dworldwide.
41.While early computers **Awere limited in capability, **Bthe modern ones can process
**Cbillions of operations **Dper second.
42.The book **Aexamines how **Bsocial media influence public opinion **Cin ways that
**Dwas previously unimaginable.
43.The researchers concluded that **Aneither the temperature **Bnor the humidity levels
**Cwere responsible **Dfor the malfunction.
44.The biologist, along with her team, **Awere traveling across the Amazon **Bto study
changes **Cin plant diversity **Dover time.
45.Historical records show **Athat the kingdom **Bthrived for centuries, **Cits wealth
derived largely **Dfrom trade.
(Correct – no error)
46.The volunteers **Adistributed food and supplies **Bto thousands of residents
**Caffected by the hurricane **Ddespite of limited resources.
47.The data **Asuggests that students **Bwho study regularly **Ctend to perform better
than those **Dwho doesn’t.
48.Although the solution **Aappears simple, implementing it effectively **Brequire
coordination **Cbetween multiple departments **Dand agencies.
49.The findings **Awere surprising, **Bgiven that previous studies **Chave not shown any
correlation **Dbetween stress and productivity.
(Correct – no error)
50.The architect insisted that the building **Ais designed to withstand earthquakes **Band
other natural disasters **Cthat frequently occur **Din the region.
SECTION 3 — READING
COMPREHENSION (50 QUESTIONS)
📘 PASSAGE 1 (Questions 1–10)
Archaeological Perspectives on Early Urbanization
Archaeologists have long debated the factors that led to the emergence of the world’s earliest
urban centers. While early theories emphasized environmental determinism—suggesting that
favorable conditions such as fertile floodplains inevitably gave rise to cities—modern research
indicates that the reality was far more complex. It is now widely accepted that urbanization was
not an automatic consequence of agricultural surplus but rather the result of social negotiations,
technological innovations, and political centralization.
One compelling example is the ancient city of Çatalhöyük, which flourished around 7000 BCE in
what is now Turkey. Surprisingly, the site lacks many hallmarks typically associated with early
cities: there are no monumental structures, no clear evidence of centralized authority, and no
formal street systems. Yet the settlement was densely populated and displayed sophisticated
artistic and ritual traditions. This has led scholars to argue that urbanization may emerge in
multiple forms, not all of which conform to the hierarchical model seen in Mesopotamia or Egypt.
Recent discoveries in the Indus Valley further complicate traditional narratives. Cities such as
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa exhibited remarkable planning, including standardized brick sizes
and advanced drainage systems. However, unlike contemporary civilizations, they show little
evidence of kingship, warfare, or social stratification. This challenges the assumption that
coercive leadership is a prerequisite for urban life.
Taken together, these findings suggest that early urbanization was a mosaic of diverse
pathways rather than a singular evolutionary trajectory. Understanding these variations allows
researchers to question long-standing biases that privilege certain cultural models over others.
Questions 1–10
1. What is the main purpose of the passage?
A. To demonstrate how environmental factors solely shaped early cities
B. To argue that early urbanization followed multiple developmental paths
C. To compare the economies of ancient civilizations
D. To show that agricultural surplus always leads to cities
2. The word inevitably in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to:
A. accidentally
B. unpredictably
C. unavoidably
D. unusually
3. According to the passage, modern researchers believe urbanization was primarily
influenced by:
A. environmental determinism
B. agricultural output
C. complex social and political factors
D. military organization
4. Why is Çatalhöyük considered unusual?
A. It was located in a desert region.
B. It lacked features commonly associated with early cities.
C. It was smaller than most Neolithic settlements.
D. It had no artistic traditions.
5. The author mentions Mesopotamia and Egypt to:
A. stress the superiority of their urban planning
B. highlight societies with similar political systems
C. provide examples of the hierarchical model of cities
D. criticize earlier archaeological work
6. What can be inferred about Indus Valley cities?
A. They were ruled by powerful monarchs.
B. They relied heavily on warfare.
C. They lacked advanced technology.
D. They had sophisticated infrastructure without centralized authority.
7. The phrase further complicate traditional narratives in paragraph 3 implies that new
discoveries:
A. disprove the existence of Indus Valley cities
B. challenge long-held assumptions about early cities
C. confirm earlier environmental theories
D. simplify previous interpretations
8. According to the passage, which assumption is challenged by evidence from
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa?
A. Urban societies must have kings or elites
B. Cities require irrigation systems
C. Monumental architecture is always present
D. Trade networks are necessary for growth
9. The author’s attitude toward traditional models of urbanization can best be described
as:
A. dismissive
B. supportive
C. neutral but cautious
D. critical yet constructive
10. What is the author’s overall conclusion about early urbanization?
A. All early cities followed the same developmental pattern
B. Urbanization arose from a variety of cultural and social conditions
C. Early cities were mostly hierarchical in nature
D. Environmental advantages were the main drivers of city formation
📘 PASSAGE 2 (Questions 11–20)
The Paradox of Dark Energy in Modern Cosmology
In 1998, two independent teams of astronomers made a discovery that revolutionized our
understanding of the universe: the expansion of the cosmos is accelerating. Prior to this
revelation, cosmologists had assumed that gravitational attraction would gradually slow cosmic
expansion, perhaps even reversing it in a distant “Big Crunch.” Instead, observations of Type Ia
supernovae demonstrated that galaxies are moving away from one another at increasing
speeds. This unexpected acceleration implied the existence of a mysterious form of energy
permeating space—now referred to as dark energy.
Dark energy is estimated to constitute roughly 68% of the total content of the universe, dwarfing
both dark matter and ordinary baryonic matter. Yet its physical nature remains elusive. One
widely discussed explanation is the cosmological constant, first proposed by Einstein. According
to this view, dark energy is a property of space itself—a steady, unchanging energy density that
drives expansion. However, quantum field theory predicts a value for this constant that is vastly
larger than what observations allow, producing one of the greatest discrepancies in theoretical
physics.
Alternative theories suggest that dark energy may not be constant but dynamic, varying over
cosmic time. These models, known collectively as “quintessence,” propose that an unknown
scalar field influences the acceleration rate. Still, none of these theories have been conclusively
verified, leaving dark energy as one of the most profound enigmas in modern science.
Questions 11–20
11. What is the main topic of the passage?
A. The formation of galaxies
B. The discovery and uncertainty surrounding dark energy
C. The collapse of the universe
D. Einstein’s theories of relativity
12. Before 1998, scientists believed cosmic expansion would:
A. remain constant
B. accelerate indefinitely
C. slow down due to gravity
D. occur at unpredictable rates
13. The word elusive in paragraph 2 is closest in meaning to:
A. controversial
B. poorly understood
C. unnecessary
D. physically dangerous
14. According to the passage, dark energy makes up approximately:
A. 5% of the universe
B. 27% of the universe
C. 68% of the universe
D. 95% of the universe
15. Why is the cosmological constant problematic?
A. It contradicts the laws of thermodynamics.
B. It predicts values inconsistent with observations.
C. It does not allow for cosmic expansion.
D. It assumes the universe is static.
16. “Quintessence” refers to:
A. a form of dark matter
B. a dynamic model of dark energy
C. the structure of galaxies
D. a type of supernova
17. What can be inferred about models of quintessence?
A. They have replaced all other cosmological theories.
B. They are fully supported by observational evidence.
C. They attempt to address limitations of the cosmological constant.
D. They have been conclusively disproven.
18. The phrase one of the most profound enigmas suggests dark energy is:
A. widely misunderstood but insignificant
B. trivial to explain
C. central to major scientific debates
D. unrelated to cosmology
19. The primary evidence for accelerating expansion came from:
A. gamma-ray bursts
B. Type Ia supernovae
C. gravitational waves
D. neutron stars
20. What is the author’s tone in the passage?
A. speculative and informal
B. enthusiastic and promotional
C. objective and analytical
D. dismissive of scientific theories
PASSAGE 3 (Questions 21–30)
The Cognitive Ecology of Tool Use in Corvids
Among the most remarkable findings in comparative cognition is the extent to which certain bird
species—particularly corvids such as crows, ravens, and jays—demonstrate sophisticated tool
use rivaling that of primates. While tool use was once regarded as a hallmark of human
uniqueness, research over the past several decades has revealed that corvid cognition is
shaped not merely by brain size but by ecological pressures that reward innovation, memory,
and causal reasoning.
New Caledonian crows, for instance, manufacture hooked tools from twigs and leaves to extract
insects from logs. These tools are not improvised in the moment; rather, they are crafted in a
consistent and species-typical manner, suggesting the presence of cultural transmission. In
controlled experiments, juvenile crows learn tool-making techniques more rapidly when they
observe adults performing the behavior, indicating that social learning plays a central role in
maintaining these traditions across generations.
Yet ecological context is equally important. Corvids that inhabit resource-scarce environments
tend to exhibit more complex problem-solving skills, possibly because environmental
unpredictability favors behavioral flexibility. This helps explain why some corvid species with
smaller absolute brain sizes outperform larger-brained animals in cognitive tasks. Their neural
architecture, though different from that of mammals, includes densely packed neurons that
facilitate rapid information processing.
The discovery that corvids engage in planning—for example, caching food for future
use—further challenges assumptions that such abilities require primate-like prefrontal cortices.
Instead, corvid cognition appears to arise from convergent evolution: similar cognitive strategies
emerging in distantly related lineages due to comparable ecological pressures.
Questions 21–30
21. What is the main idea of the passage?
A. Corvid tool use is inferior to that of primates.
B. Corvid cognition arises from ecological and social factors rather than brain size alone.
C. Only New Caledonian crows exhibit advanced intelligence.
D. Large brains are the sole predictor of intelligence in birds.
22. The word rivaling in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to:
A. supporting
B. surpassing
C. competing with
D. imitating
23. According to the passage, the tool-making behavior of New Caledonian crows
suggests:
A. that they improvise tools differently each time
B. the presence of culturally transmitted knowledge
C. that tool use is genetically predetermined
D. little reliance on social learning
24. Why does the author mention juvenile crows?
A. To show that young birds are less capable than adults
B. To provide evidence that tool-making is taught socially
C. To argue that age determines intelligence
D. To demonstrate that only adults can create tools
25. The phrase equally important in paragraph 3 indicates that ecological context:
A. is less significant than social learning
B. is as influential as cultural transmission
C. plays no role in corvid cognition
D. determines brain size
26. What inference can be made about corvid species in harsh environments?
A. They are less capable of solving problems.
B. They rely solely on instinct for survival.
C. They may develop greater cognitive flexibility.
D. They abandon tool use entirely.
27. The passage suggests that densely packed neurons in corvid brains:
A. reduce their ability to learn socially
B. compensate for smaller absolute brain sizes
C. make them less capable than mammals
D. function similarly to mammalian prefrontal cortices
28. Planning behaviors such as caching food imply that corvids:
A. require mammalian-like neural structures
B. act only based on immediate needs
C. possess some ability to anticipate future events
D. are less intelligent than previously assumed
29. The author’s discussion of convergent evolution suggests that:
A. corvids are directly descended from primates
B. similar cognitive traits can arise independently
C. evolution always favors larger brains
D. ecological pressures affect only mammals
30. What is the tone of the passage?
A. skeptical and dismissive
B. humorous and informal
C. analytical and respectful
D. argumentative and emotional