chapter 4

Solar radiation

Thermal radiation

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Solar radiation is made up of several broad classes of electromagnetic radiation. The broad classes of

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the solar spectrum include ultraviolet, visible light, and infrared. Overlapping the wave lengths of

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most of the infrared, all of the visible light and a part of the ultraviolet spectrum is a range refer to as
thermal radiation.
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• The thermal radiation is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum with wave lengths from
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0.1 to 100 microns.

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• When a substance has its thermal energy level (temperature) increases, the thermal portion of
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the electromagnetic radiation produced by this temperature increases.

• Irradiation (G) is the total thermal radiation that impinges on a surface from all directions and
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from all sources. Its unit is W/m2 .

as

• The thermal radiation energy that falls on surface is subject to absorption and reflection as well
.B

as transmission through transparent bodies.

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• Absorption (α) is the transformation of the radiant energy into thermal energy stored by the
molecules.

• Reflation (ρ) is the return of the radiation by a surface without change of frequency.

• Transmission (τ ) is the passage of radiation through a medium without change of frequency.

• Energy falling on a surface must be subject to one of these three actions therefore:

α+ρ+τ =1

1
 • Table (7-1, page 183) gives solar absorptances for a range of materials in or around buildings.

• Total emissive power (E) is the total energy emitted by the surface into the space.

• A blackbody is the surface that reflect no radiation (ρ = 0).

• blackbody is also the perfect radiant absorber and emitter.

• Most surfaces are not blackbodies, but reflect some incoming radiation and emit less radiation
than a blackbody at the same temperature.

• The emittance () is the fraction of the blackbody energy that a surface would emit at the same

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temperature, so that

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E = EB

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The earth motion around the sun
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• The earth moves in a slightly elliptical orbit around the sun.
l ra

• The elliptical plane or orbital is the plane in which the earth rotates around the sun ( approxi-
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mately once every 365 14 days).

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• The mean distance from the center of the earth to the center of the sun is approximately
im

(1.5 × 108 ) km
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• The earth also spins around its on axis at the rate of one revolution every 24 hours.
.B

• The earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.5 deg. with respect to the orbital plane. This is due to
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the gyroscopic effect results from the earth movement around the sun and the earth spinning
around its own axis.

• The sun with respect to the observer on earth surface is considered as a point source of radiation.

• The time of the vernal equinox (March 21st ) and of the autumnal equinox (September 22nd or
23rd ) and the earth’s poles are equidistant from the sun .

Note: Equinox means equal nights (12 hours of darkness and 12 hours of daylight).

• During the summer solstice (June 21st or 22nd ) the North Pole is inclined 23.5 deg. toward the
sun. All points on the earth’s surface north of 66.5 deg. N latitude (the Arctic Circle) are in

2
 continuous
[Link] daylight,
6/15/04 4:10 PMwhereas
Page 185all points south of 66.5 deg. S latitude (the Antarctic Circle) are in
continuous darkness. Relatively warm weather occurs in the northern hemisphere and relatively
cold weather occurs in the southern hemisphere. The word ”solstice” means sun standing still.
7-3 Time 185

March 21
Vernal
equinox

June 21 or 22
Summer Orbital
solstice
Sun
Winter
solstice
Plane

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December 21 or 22

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Autumnal

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equinox
September 22 or 23

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23. 23.
5d 5d
66. eg N 66. eg N
5d 5d
e

e
itud

itud

23. eg 23. eg
5d
eg A ak 5d
eg A
Lat

Lat

Tro rc. Cir Tro rc. Cir

0d pic c 0d pic c
eg of C le eg of C le
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23. anc 23. anc
5d Equ er 5d Equ er
eg ato Sun’s Sun’s eg ato
Tro r Tro r
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pic rays rays pic

of C of C
66. apr 66. apr
5d ico 5d ico
rn rn
l

Plane e g Ant. eg An Plane

t. C
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Circ ircl
of orbit le e of orbit
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S S
Summer solstice Winter solstice
June 21 or 22 December 21 or 22
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Figure 7-1 The effect of the earth’s tilt and rotation about the sun.
as

Time
.B

along the Tropic of Capricorn. The torrid zone is the region between, where the sun
is at the zenith (directly overhead) at least once during the year. In the temperate zones
Because of the earth’s rotation around itslatitude
own axis, a fixed location
theon
sunthe earth’s surface
over-goes through
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(between 23.5 and 66.5 deg in each hemisphere) is never directly

a 24-hour cycle inhead but always
relation to theappears
sun. above the horizon each day. The frigid zones are those zones
with latitude greater than 66.5 deg, where the sun is below the horizon for at least one
full day (24 hours) each year. In these two zones the sun is also above the horizon for
• The earth isatdivided
least oneinto 360 each
full day [Link].
of circular arc by longitudinal lines passing through the poles.

• A 157-3
deg. TIME
of longitude corresponds to 1/24 of a day or 1 hour of time.
Because of the earth’s rotation about its own axis, a fixed location on the earth’s sur-
• A point on face
the goes through
earth’s a 24-hour
surface cycle15in deg
exactly relation
westto the sun. The earth
of another pointis will
divided
seeinto
the360
sun in exactly
deg of circular arc by longitudinal lines passing through the poles. Thus, 15 deg of
longitude 1 of a day or 1 hour of time. A point on the earth’s surface
the same position ascorresponds to 24
the first point after one hour time has passed.
exactly 15 deg west of another point will see the sun in exactly the same position as
the first point after one hour of time has passed. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC),
• Greenwich civil time (GCT),
or Greenwich is the(GCT),
civil time time along the zero
is the time alonglongitude line passing
the zero longitude line through
passing Greenwich,
England.

3
 July −6.2 20.6 346.4 1093 0.186 0.138
Aug −2.4 12.3 350.9 1107 0.182 0.134
Sep 7.5 0.0 360.1 1136 0.165 0.121
Oct 15.4 −10.5 369.6 1166 0.152 0.111
Nov 13.8 −19.8 377.2 1190 0.142 0.106
Dec 1.6 −23.45 381.6 1204 0.141 0.103
• Local civil time (LCT) is
aA,determined by the longitude of the observer, the difference being four
B, C, coefficients are based on research by Machler and Iqbal (6).
minutes of time for eachSource:
degreeReprinted by permission from ASHRAE Cooling and Heating Load
of longitude.
Calculation Manual, 2nd ed., 1992.

Solar angles 7-4 SOLAR ANGLES

The direction of the sun’s rays can be described if three fundamental quantities are
known:
The direction of the sun’s rays can be described if three fundamental quantities are known:
1. Location on the earth’s surface
2. Time of day
1. Location on the earth’s surface.
3. Day of the year

2. Time of day. It is convenient to describe these three quantities by giving the latitude, the hour
angle, and the sun’s declination, respectively. Figure 7-2 shows a point P located on
the surface of the earth in the northern hemisphere. The latitude l is the angle between

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3. Day of the year. the line OP and the projection of OP on the equatorial plane. This is the same latitude

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N

p
ak Sun’s rays
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O
l
ra

δ
h
l
bu

Equator
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Figure 7-2. Latitude, hour angle, and sun’s declination.

• It is convenient to describe these three quantities by giving the latitude, the hour angle, and the
im

sun’s declination, respectively.

as
.B

• The latitude l is the angle between the line OP and the projection of OP on the equatorial
plane.
Dr

• The hour angle h is the angle between the projection of P on the equatorial plane and the
projection on that plane of a line from the center of the sun to the center of the earth.

• The sun’s declination δ is the angle between a line connecting the center of the sun and earth
and the projection of that line on the equatorial plane.

• The solar altitude angle β is the angle between the sun’s ray and the projection of that ray on a
horizontal surface. It is the angle of the sun above the horizon.

sin β = cos l cos h cos δ + sin l sin δ

4
 and the projection on that plane of a line from the center of the sun to the center of
the earth. Fifteen degrees of hour angle corresponds to one hour of time. It is con-
venient for computational purposes to maintain a convention, with the hour angle
being negative in the morning and positive in the afternoon. The hour angle will be
zero at local solar noon, have its maximum value at sunset, and have its minimum
• The sun’s zenith angle θz value
is theatangle
sunrise. However,
between thethe magnitude
sun’s of the
rays and hour angles of sunrise
a perpendicular to theand sunset on
horizontal
a given day are identical.
plane at point P . The sun’s declination δ is the angle between a line connecting the center of the
sun and earth and the projection of that line on the equatorial plane. Figure 7-3 shows
how the sun’s declination varies throughout a typical year. On a given day in the year,
the declination varies slightly from year to year but for typical HVAC calculations the
values from any β+ θz are
year = 90 [Link]. The following equation, developed
sufficiently
from work by Spencer (2), may be used to determine declination in degrees:
δ = 0.3963723 − 22.9132745 cos N + 4.0254304 sin N − 0.3872050 cos 2 N
• The daily maximum altitude (solar noon) of the sun at a given location can be shown to be:
+ 0.05196728 sin 2 N − 0.1545267 cos 3 N + 0.08479777 sin 3 N (7-7)
where N = (n − 1)(360/365), and n is the day of the year, 1 ≤ n ≤ 365. In this formu-
lation, N is given in degrees. Table 7-2 shows typical values of the sun’s declination
βnoon =day
for the twenty-first 90 of| l each
− δ month.
| degrees.
It is convenient in HVAC computations to define the sun’s position in the sky in
terms of the solar altitude β and the solar azimuth φ, which depend on the fundamen-
• The solar azimuth angletalφquantities l, h, andinδ. the horizontal plane measured, in the clockwise
is the angle

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The solar altitude angle β is the angle between the sun’s ray and the projection

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direction between north of
andthatthe
rayprojection of the
on a horizontal sun’s
surface ([Link]
7-4).on
It isthat plane.
the angle of the sun above the hori-
zon. It can be shown by analytic geometry that the following relationship is true:

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sin δ cos l − cos δ sin l cos h

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30
cos φ=
Degrees

cos β
0

Note that, when calculating –30

September December March
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φ by taking the inverse of cos φ, it is necessary to check which
June September
22 22 22 22 22
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quadrant φ is in.
Figure 7-3 Variation of sun’s declination.
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Sun
l
bu

W
θz
β
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φ
S N
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as

Horizontal
.B

E surface
Figure 7-4 The solar altitude angle β and azimuth angle φ.
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• For a vertical or tilted surface the angle measured in the horizontal plane between the projection
of the sun’s rays on that plane and a normal to the surface is called the surface solar azimuth γ.

• If ψ is the surface azimuth (facing direction) measured clockwise from north, then

γ =| φ − ψ |

• The angle of incidence θ is the angle between the sun’s rays and the normal to the surface.

The tilt angle α is the angle between the normal to the surface and the normal to the horizontal
surface.

5
 check which quadrant φ is in.
For a vertical or tilted surface the angle measured in the horizontal plane between
the projection of the sun’s rays on that plane and a normal to the surface is called the
surface solar azimuth γ. Figure 7-5 illustrates this quantity.
If ψ is the surface azimuth (facing direction) measured clockwise from north, then
• A flat roof has a tilt angle of zero; a vertical wall has a tilt angle of 90 deg, so
obviously
γ = |φ − ψ | (7-12)
The angle of incidence θ is the angle between the sun’s rays and the normal to the
surface,cos
as θshown
= cosinβFig.
cos7-5. sin βαcos
Theαtilt+angle
γ sin is the
α angle between the normal to the
surface and the normal to the horizontal surface. Then a flat roof has a tilt angle of
zero; a vertical wall has a tilt angle of 90 deg. It may be shown that
For a vertical surface cos θ = cos βcoscos
θ =γ cos β cos γ sin α + sin β cos α (7-13a)

For a horizontal surface cos θ = sin β.

Normal to horizontal

␪
Projection of Normal to tilted surface

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sun’s rays ␣

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on horizontal N
plane
␤

sh
␾ ␺
␥

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Normal to vertical surface

Figure 7-5 Surface solar azimuth γ, surface azimuth ψ,

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and angle of tilt α for an arbitrary tilted surface.
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Heat gain through fenestrations
l ra
bu

The term fenestration refers to any glazed opening in a building envelope. The components of
fenestrations include:
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• Glazing material, either glass or plastic

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• Framing and dividers

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• External shading devices

.B

• Internal shading devices

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Fenestrations are important for energy use in a building, since they affect rates of heat transfer
into and out of the building, are a source of air leakage, and provide daylighting, which may reduce
the need for artificial lighting. The solar radiation passing inward through the fenestration glazing
permits heat gains into a building that are quite different from the heat gains of the nontransmitting
parts of the building envelope.

solar heat gain

z }| {
Total heat admission through glass = (Radiation transmitted through glass + Inward flow of absorbed solar radiation) +

Conduction heat gain

| {z }
q̇=U (to −ti )

6
 [Link] 6/15/04 4:10 PM Page 198

The first two quantities on the right are related to the amount of solar radiation falling on the
glass, and the third quantity occurs whether or not the sun is shining.
198 Chapter 7 Solar Radiation

Incoming solar
radiation—100%

Inward flow of
absorbed radiation—4%

Reflected
radiation—8%

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Transmitted
solar radiation—80%
Outward flow of

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absorbed radiation—8%

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Total solar heat Total solar heat
excluded—16% admitted—84%

Figure 7-9 Distribution of solar radiation falling on clear plate glass.

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Solar heat gainoncoefficients
the composition and thickness of the glass, and the remainder is transmitted
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directly indoors, to become part of the cooling load. The solar gain is the sum of the
transmitted radiation and the portion of the absorbed radiation that flows inward.
Solar heat gain coefficients (SHGC) heat is Theconducted
fraction through
of the the
incident irradiance
thereoris incident solar energy
l

Because is also glass whenever an outdoor–indoor

bu

temperature difference, the total rate of heat admission is

that enters the glazing and becomes heat gain:
Total heat admission through glass = Radiation transmitted through glass
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+ Inward flow of absorbed solar radiation + Conduction heat gain

The first two quantities
q̇i = (Gion the right are related to the amount of solar radiation
)(SHGC)
im

falling on the glass, and the third quantity occurs whether or not the sun is shining. In
winter the conduction heat flow may well be outward rather than inward. The total
as

heat gain becomes

Total heat gain = Solar heat gain + Conduction heat gain
.B

• The SHGC includes: The inward flow of absorbed solar radiation and the conduction heat gain are not
independent, but they are often approximated as if they are. In this case, the conduc-
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tion heat gain portion.

1. The directly transmitted per unit area is simply the product of the overall coefficient of heat trans-
fer U for the existing fenestration and the outdoor–indoor temperature difference
(to − ti). Values of U for a number of widely used glazing systems are given in Tables
2. The inwardly flowing fraction of the absorbed portion.
5-5a and b. Additional values may be found in the ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals
Volume (5) and in manufacturers’ literature. For a more detailed approach, which
3. In some forms,accounts
the inwardly flowing fraction
for the conduction of that absorbed
heat gain simultaneously byinward
with the the window frame.
flowing absorbed
solar radiation, see Section 8-9, Interior Surface Heat Balance—Opaque Surfaces.
• Values of SHGC at a range of incidence angles for several types of glazings are found in Table
Solar Heat Gain Coefficients
(7-3, page 200).
The heat gain through even the simplest window is complicated by the fact that the
window is finite in size, it is framed, and the sunlight striking it does so at varying
• SHGC does not include
angles the portiontheofday.
throughout theTofenestration
fully take allheat
of thegain due to ainto
complexities difference in tempera-
account requires
the use of not only spectral methods (using monochromatic radiation properties) but
ture between the inside and outside air.

7
 [Link] 6/15/04 4:10 PM Page 201

External shading 7-6 He

• A fenestration may be shaded by roof overhangs or other parts

effective in reducing
of the buildingsolar heat gain to a space and
80 percent. In order to determine the solar radiation
necessary to determine the area of the fenestration
• External shading of fenestrations is effective in reducing solar
[Link] gain on
The areas to which
a space and shade
external may falls can
of the external objects creating the shade and from
produce reductions of up to 80 percent. that particular time and location. It is generally ass
incident direct radiation, but that the diffuse irradiat
• In order to determine the solar radiation incident on the fenestration,
the same itas is
that on the sunlit
necessary area. This is a cons
to determine
accuracy is desired, it would be possible to refine t
the area of the fenestration that is externally shaded and the area inthat
defined Eq. is sunlit.
7-20.
In general, shading devices may have almost an
for determining shading caused by any shape with a
• The areas on which external shade falls can be calculated from:(13). Procedures for other specific shapes are given
(14). Here, we will describe a procedure suitable f

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1. The geometry of the external objects creating the shade. devices that are long enough to cast a shadow along

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Figure 7-10 illustrates a window that is set back
may occur on the sides and top, depending on the
2. The sun angles for that particular time.

sh
window faces. It can be shown that the dimensions
x = b tan γ

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3. The direction the window faces
y = b tan Ω
4. location of the window.
ak where:
tan β
• It is generally assumed that shaded areas have no incident direct radiation,tanbut
Ω =
zz
cos γ
that the diffuse irradiation incident on the shaded area is the same as that on the
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and where:
sunlit area. β = sun’s altitude angle from Eq. 7-8
l
bu

γ = wall solar azimuth angle = |φ − ψ | from Eq

φ = solar azimuth from Eq. 7-11, measured cloc
Ad

x = b tan γ ψ = wall azimuth, measured clockwise from nor

y = b tan Ω
ys
ra
im

where: s
n`
Su
tan β
tan Ω
as

cos γ
and where:
.B

β
y
β = sun’s altitude angle Ω
Dr

γ = wall solar azimuth angle = |φ − ψ| x γ

a
φ = solar azimuth, measured clockwise from north.
ψ = wall azimuth, measured clockwise from north.
c
b
Example 1(7.5,page 202)

A 1.2 m high × 1.5 m wide double-glazed window faces south Figure 7-10 Shading of window set back from the plane
west. The window has a frame with width of 0.038 m. around
the outside edge. (The actual glazed area has dimensions of
1.162 m high × 1.462 m wide). The top of the window has a 0.6 m overhang that extends a great

8
 γ = |φ − ψ | = |256.6 − 225| = 31.6 deg
Then
b tan β
y = β tan δ =
cos γ
distance on each side of the window. Compute the shaded area of the frame 2 tan 47.0 on July 21 at
y =and glazing= 2.52 ft
cos 31.6
3:00 P.M. solar time at 40 deg north latitude. The shading on the window is illustrated in Fig. 7-11. For the shaded area o
Ash,f = 2.52 ft × 0.125 ft × 2 + 4.75 ft × 0.125 ft = 1.22 ft2
Solution The sunlit portion of the frame has an area of
To find the area, the dimension y must be computed. β and φ are 47.0 and 256.6 deg, respectively.
Asl,f = Af − Ash,f = 2.63 ft − 1.22 ft = 1.41 ft
2 2 2

The wall azimuth for a window facing southwestFor

is the
225shaded
deg. Then,
area of for a wall facing west of south and
the glazing,
for afternoon hours on July 21 at 3:00 P.M. solar time at 40 degAsh,g = (2.52 ft − 0.125 ft) × 4.75 ft = 11.38 ft2
N latitude,
Widow (H=1.2 × W=1.5)m
frame thickness = 0.038 m
Overhang = 0.6 m

d
Shaded glass 0.76m
at 21st July 3 P.M 40◦ NL

ee
Facing S.W

sh
δ ⇒ table (7.2, page 187), δ = 20.6◦

Ra
Frame
Sunlit glass
◦
h = 3 × 15 = 45
l = 40◦ ak
Figure 7-11 Shading of window for Example 7-5.
sin β = cos l cos h cos δ + sin l sin δ
zz
sin β = cos 40 cos 45 cos 20.6 + sin 40 sin 20.6 = 0.7332 ⇒ β = 47.2◦
ra

sin δ cos l − cos δ sin l cos h

cos φ =
l

cos β
bu

sin 20.6 cos 40 − cos 20.6 sin 40 cos 45

cos φ =
cos 47.2
Ad

φ = 103.267 or 360 − 103.267 = 256.7◦

φ = 256.7◦
im

ψ = 225◦
as

γ = |φ − ψ| = |256.7 − 225|
.B

γ = 31.7◦
tan β
y = b tan Ω = b
Dr

cos γ
0.6 tan 47.2
y=
cos 31.7
y = 0.762 m
The shading area of the frame is
Ash,f = (0.762 × 0.038) × 2 + (1.5 − 2 × 0.038) × 0.038
= 0.112 m2
The total area of the frame is:
Af = (1.2 × 0.038) × 2 + (1.5 − 2 × 0.038) × 0.038 × 2 = 0.1994 ' 0.2 m2
The sunlit area of the frame is
Asl,f = Af − Ash,f

9
 Asl,f = 0.2 − 0.112 = 0.088 m2
The shaded area of the glazing is
Ash,g = (0.762 − 0.038) × (1.5 − 0.038 × 2) = 1.031 m2
The sunlit area of the glazing (Asl,g ) is
Asl,g = Atotal,g − Ash,g
Asl,g = 1.699 − 1.031 = 0.668 m2

Example 2

A 1.2 m high by 2.5 m wide window is inset from the face of the wall 0.15 m. Calculate the shading
provided by the inset at 2 P.M. sun time if the window is facing south at 32◦ north latitude, August

d
ee
21.

sh
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Solution

Window (H=1.2 × W=2.5) m ak

b = 1.5 m N
zz
Facing S
ra

2 P.M.
l
bu

21 August
W E
Ad

32◦ N L
δ ⇒ table 7.2 ⇒ δ = 12.3◦
im

h = 2 × 15 = 30◦
l = 32◦
as

S
.B

For a south-facing window, ψ = 0 and γ = φ.

sin β = cos 32 cos 30 cos 12.3 + sin 32 sin 12.3
Dr

β = 56.15 ' 56◦

sin 12.3 cos 32 − cos 12.3 sin 32 cos 30
cos φ =
cos 56.15
φ = 118.73 ⇒ φ = 61.27 ' 60◦ from North.
γ = 60◦
b tan β 0.15 tan 56
y= = = 0.44 m
cos γ cos 60
x = b tan γ = 0.15 tan 60
x = 0.26 m
As1,g = (2.5 − 0.26)(1.2 − 0.44) = 1.7m2

10
Transmission and absorption of fenestration without internal
shading
In order to determine solar heat gain with the simplified procedure, it is assumed that, based on the
procedures described above, the direct irradiance on the surface (GD ), the diffuse irradiance on the
surface (Gd ), the sunlit area of the glazing (Asl,g ), and the sunlit area of the frame (Asl,f ) are all
known. In addition, the areas of the glazing (Ag ) and frame (Af ) and the basic window properties
must be known. The solar heat gain coefficient of the frame (SHGCf ) may be estimated as:
Uf Af rame
SHGCf = αfs
hf Af,surf ace

d
where Af rame is the projected area of the frame element, and Af,surf ace is the actual surface area

ee
of the frame. αfs is the solar absorptivity of the exterior frame surface (see Table 7-1, page 183).

sh
Uf is the U -factor of the frame element (see Table 5-6, page 146); hf is the overall exterior surface

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conductance (see Table 5-2, page 131).
The solar heat gain coefficient of the glazing may be taken from Table (7-3, page 200) for a selection
ak
of sample windows. There are actually two solar heat gain coefficients of interest, one for direct
zz
radiation at the actual incidence angle the (SHGCgD ) and a second for diffuse radiation (SHGCgd ).
ra

SHGCgD may be determined from Table (7-3, page 200) by linear interpolation. Values of SHGCgd
l
bu

may be found in the column labeled “Diffuse.” in the same Table.

Once the values of SHGCf , SHGCgD , and SHGCgd have been determined,the total solar heat
Ad

gain of the window may be determined by applying direct radiation to the sunlit portion
im

of the fenestration and diffuse radiation to the entire fenestration:

h i h i
Q̇SHG = SHGCgD Asl,g + SHGCf Asl,f GDθ + SHGCgd Ag + SHGCf Af Gdθ
as

To compute the total heat gain through the window, the conduction heat gain must be added,
.B

which is estimated as:

Dr

Q̇CHG = U (to − ti )
where U for the fenestration may be taken from Table (5-5b, page 145), and (to − ti ) is the
outdoor–indoor temperature difference.

Example 3 (7.6, page 203)

Consider the 1.2 m high × 1.5 m wide, fixed (inoperable) double-glazed window, facing south west
from example 1 (7-5, page 202). The glass thickness is 3 mm, the two panes are separated by a 6 mm
air space, and surface 2 (the inside of the outer pane) has a low-e coating with an emissivity of 0.1.
The frame, painted with white acrylic paint, is aluminium with thermal break; the spacer is insulated.

11
The outer layer of glazing is set back from the edge of the frame 3 mm. On July 21 at 3:00 P.M. solar
time at 40 deg N latitude, the incident angle is 54.5 deg, the incident direct irradiation is 490 W/m2 ,
and the incident diffuse irradiation is 191 W/m2 . Find the solar heat gain of the window.
(H=1.2 × W=1.5)m
Frame thickness = 0.038 m
Glazing area = (1.162 × 1.462) m
Fixed double glazed
Glass thickness = 3 mm
Air space = 6 mm
low-e coating of inside surface of outer glass ⇒  = 0.1

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ee
Frame type ⇒ AL

sh
Frame painted ⇒ White acrylic thermal break with insulation frame

Ra
The outer layer of glazing set back from the frame ⇒ 3 mm
Facing ⇒ S.W
at 21 July 3 pm 40◦ NL
ak
zz
θ = 54.5◦
ra

GD = 490 W/m2
l

Gd = 191 W/m2
bu

Find Q̇SHG
Ad

Solution
im

Window ID 21a ⇒ Table 7.3 ⇒ SHGCg,D = 0.59 ⇒ SHGCg,d = 0.57

as

Frame Uf ⇒ Table 5.6 ⇒ 5.91 W/m2 ◦ C

.B

Frame αfs ⇒ Table 7.1 ⇒ 0.26

Dr

Frame hf ⇒ Table 5.2 ⇒ 22.7 W/m2 ◦ C

Projected area of the frame is 0.2 m2
Actual surface area of the frame is 0.22 m2
 U A 
s f f
SHGCf = αf
hf Af,surf ace
 5.91 × 0.2 
= 0.26
22.7 × 0.22
= 0.062
   
Q̇SHG = SHGCg,D Asl,g + SHGCf Asl,f GDθ + SHGCg,d Ag + SHGCf Af Gdθ



Q̇SHG = 0.59 × 0.668 + 0.062 × 0.092 × 490 + 0.57 × 1.699 + 0.062 × 0.2 × 191
=

12
Transmission and absorption of fenestration with internal
shading (using SHGC)
Internal shading, such as:

1. Venetian blinds

2. roller shades

3. draperies (long heavy curtains)

• The use of internal shading devices are utilised to decrease the solar heat gain because of the

d
ee
reflecting back of the solar radiation through the window.

sh
• Solar radiation absorbed by the shading device will be quickly released to the room.

Ra
• To calculate the effect of internal shading, it is convenient to modify the equation of the solar
ak
heat gain through the fenestrations. Therefore, the sensible heat gain through the glassing is
zz
multiply by the internal attenuation coefficient.
ra

h i h i
Q̇SHG = SHGCf Asl,f GD,θ + SHGCf Af Gdθ + SHGCg,D Asl,g GDθ + SHGCgd Ag Gdθ IAC
l
bu

• Interior solar attenuation coefficients (IAC) for Venetian blinds and roller shades may be found
Ad

in Table (7-4, page 208).

im

• For draperies, the IAC depends on the color and weave of the fabric.
as

• The category of the fabric for the draperies is estimated first using Figure (7-12, page 209) as
.B

I refers to open
Dr

II refers to semiopen

III refers to closed

Colour is classified as:

D refers to dark

M refers to medium

L refers to light

As example:

A light-coloured, closed-Weave material would be classified as IIIL

13
• Once the category has been established, with the fabric reflectance and fabric transmittance
an index letter are provided from Figure (7-13, page 211). The IAC of glassed window with
draperies is estimated from Table (7-5, page 210).

Example 4 (7-8, page 207)

If an opaque white roller shade were added to the window in Example 3 (7-6, 203) what would
be the effect on the solar heat gain?

Solution

d
ee
From Table 7-4, the interior solar attenuation coefficient for an opaque white roller shade installed

sh
on a residential double-pane window is 0.41.

Ra
h i h i
Q̇SHG = SHGCf Asl,f GD,θ + SHGCf Af Gdθ + SHGCg,D Asl,g GDθ + SHGCgd Ag Gdθ IAC
h i h i
ak
Q̇SHG = 0.062 × 0.092 × 490 + 0.062 × 0.2 × 191 + 0.59 × 0.668 × 490 + 0.57 × 1.699 × 191 × 0.41
zz
= 160.18 W
l ra
bu

Transmission and absorption of fenestration without inter-

Ad

nal shading, detailed

im

In this section, procedures for determining the direct and diffuse solar radiation transmitted
as

and absorbed by a window will be described. Absorbed solar radiation may flow into the space
.B

or back outside. Therefore, procedures for estimating the inward flowing fraction will also be
discussed.
Dr

Transmitted solar heat gain

Transmitted solar heat gain is applied for the glassing material only.

Q̇T SHG,g = TDθ GDθ Asl,g + Td Gdθ Ag

Where TDθ is the transmittance portion of the direct radiation for any given incidence and can
be estimated from Table (7-3, page 200). Td is the defused radiation and it can be estimated
from the same Table.

14
Absorb radiation

For glassing

K
X K
X
Q̇ASHG,g = GDθ Asl,g AfKDθ + Gdθ Ag AfK d
K=1 K=1

AfKDθ & AfK d are estimated from Table (7-3, page 200).

The superscript f specifies that the absorptances apply for solar radiation coming from the front
or exterior of the window, not for reflected solar radiation coming from the back of the window.

d
ee
sh
Inward flowing fraction N

Ra
For the K th layer the inward flowing fraction is given by
U ak
NK =
ho,K
zz
The inward flowing fraction for the entire window is given by
l ra

h PK PK i
f f
bu

GDθ K=1 AKDθ Nk + Gdθ K=1 AKd Nk

N=
GDθ + Gdθ
Ad

Frame absorbed solar radiation

im
as

Uf Af 
.B

h i 
Q̇ASHG,f = GDθ Asl,f + Gdθ Af αfs
hf Af,surf ace
Dr

The total solar heat gain of the fenestration

The total absorbed solar radiation for the fenestration is

Q̇ASHG,gf = N Q̇ASHG,g + Q̇ASHG,f

The total solar heat gain of the fenestration is

15
 Q̇SHG,gf = Q̇T SHG,g + Q̇ASHG,gf

Example 5 (7-7, page 205)

Repeat Example 3, (7-6, page 203) using the detailed analysis.

Solution

To analyze the glazing, we will need to know the transmittance and layer-by-layer absorptances for an

d
incidence angle of 54.5 deg. By interpolating from Table 7-3, we find TD θ = 0.51, Af1Dθ = 0.21, and

ee
Af2Dθ = 0.08 The diffuse properties are Td = 0.5, Af1d = 0.2, and Af2d = 0.07 Then, the transmitted

sh
solar radiation may be found as:

Ra
Q̇T SHG,g = TDθ GDθ Asl,g + Td Gdθ Ag
ak
Q̇T SHG,g = 0.51 × 490 × 0.668 + 0.5 × 191 × 1.699 = 329.188
zz
And the absorbed radiation may be found:
ra

Q̇ASHG,g = 490 × 0.668 × (0.21 + 0.08) + 191 × 1.699 × (0.2 + 0.07) = 182.54
l

The U-factor for the center of glass is 2.45 W/m2 ◦ C from Table 5-5b. In order to estimate the
bu

fraction of absorbed radiation, it is necessary to estimate the inward flowing fraction. First, the inward
Ad

flowing fraction must be estimated for each layer. To use Eq. 7-37 it is necessary to estimate the
conductance between the outer pane (layer 1) and the outside air, and the conductance between the
im

inner pane (layer 2) and the outside air. For layer 1, the conductance is simply the exterior surface
as

conductance,
.B

U 2.45
N1 = = = 0.108
ho,1 22.7
For layer 2, the conductance between layer 2 and the outside air may be estimated by assuming
Dr

that the resistance between the inner pane and the outside air is equal to the total resistance of the
window minus the resistance from the inner pane to the inside air. (The resistances of the glass layers
are assumed to be negligible). Taking the value of hi from Table 5-2a:
hi = 8.29 W/m2 ◦ C
1 1 1 1
Ro,2 = − = − = 0.286 m2 ◦ C/W
U hi 2.45 8.29
Then, the conductance from the inner pane to the outdoor air is:
1 1
ho,2 = = = 3.5 W/m2 ◦ C
Ro,2 0.286
The inward flowing fraction for the inner pane is:
U 2.45
N2 = = = 0.7
ho,2 3.5

16
 As expected, much more of the absorbed radiation from the inner pane flows inward than that
absorbed by the outer pane. Now that N1 and N2 have been calculated, the inward flowing fraction
can be determined
h with Eq. i
PK f PK f
GDθ K=1 AKDθ Nk + Gdθ K=1 AKd Nk
N=
h GDθ + Gdθ i
490 × (0.21 × 0.108 + 0.08 × 0.7) + 191(0.2 × 0.108 + 0.07 × 0.7)
N= = 0.076
490 + 191
The solar heat gain absorbed by the frame and conducted into the room may be estimated as:
h i  U A 
f f
Q̇ASHG,f = GDθ Asl,f + Gdθ Af αfs
hf Af,surf ace
Note that it is analogous to the calculation and use of the SHGCf in the simplified procedure.
h i 5.91 × 0.2
Q̇ASHG,f = 490 × 0.1323 + 191 × 0.2 × 0.26 × (

d
) = 6.34 W
22.7 × 0.22

ee
The absorbed heat gain may now be calculated as:

sh
Q̇ASHG,gf = N Q̇ASHG,g + Q̇ASHG,f

Ra
Q̇ASHG,gf = 0.076 × 182.54 + 6.34 = 20.2 W
The total solar heat gain is the sum of the transmitted and absorbed components,
Q̇SHG,gf = Q̇T SHG,g + Q̇ASHG,gf
ak
zz
Q̇SHG,gf = 329.188 + 20.2 = 349.4 W
l ra
bu
Ad
im
as
.B
Dr

17
Homework

Q 7-20
A south-facing window is 1.2 m wide by 1.8 m tall and is set back into the wall a distance of 0.3 m.
For Shreveport, LA at 32.47 N latitude estimate the percentage of the window that is shaded for

(a) April 21, 9:00 A.M. solar time

(b) July 21, 12:00 P.M. solar time

(c) September 21, 5:00 P.M. solar time

d
Q 7-21

ee
sh
A south-facing window is 1.2 m wide by 1.8 m tall, a long 0.6 m overhang located 0.6 m above the top

Ra
of the window. For Shreveport, LA at 32.47 N latitude estimate the percentage of the window that is
shaded for

(a) April 21, 9:00 A.M. solar time

ak
zz
(b) July 21, 12:00 P.M. solar time
ra

(c) September 21, 5:00 P.M. solar time

l
bu
Ad

Q 7-27
For 3:00 P.M. solar time, on July 21, in Boise ID at 43.6 N latitude and the outdoor temperature
im

is 34◦ C. A 0.9 m wide and 1.5 m high window faces southwest. (Actually, it faces southwest all the
as

time!) The inoperable window has a 50 mm wide aluminum frame with a thermal break utilizing
.B

metal spacers. The glazing system is 21c in Table 7-3. There is no interior or exterior shading. GD = 0
and Gd = 840 W/m2 . Calculate the incidence angle and calculate the total solar heat gain, using the
Dr

simplified approach.

Q 7-28
For the window in Problem 7-27, calculate the transmitted and absorbed solar heat gain, using the
detailed approach.

Q 7-29
For the window in Problem 7-27, if light-colored Venetian blinds are added, what is the total solar
heat gain? (Use the simplified approach.)

18