Fall 2025-26

July 2025

BMEE402L

Dr. ARJUN SINGH K

10-11-2025 Module 6: Radiation 2
THE VIEW FACTOR
View factor is a purely geometric quantity and is
independent of the surface properties and temperature.
It is also called the shape factor, configuration factor, and
angle factor.
The view factor based on the assumption that the
surfaces are diffuse emitters and diffuse reflectors is
called the diffuse view factor, and the view factor based
on the assumption that the surfaces are diffuse emitters
but specular reflectors is called the specular view factor.

Fij the fraction of the radiation leaving surface i

Radiation heat exchange between that strikes surface j directly
surfaces depends on the orientation of
the surfaces relative to each other, and The view factor ranges between 0 and 1
this dependence on orientation is
accounted for by the view factor

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RECIPROCITY RELATION
𝐀𝟏 𝐅𝟏𝟐 = 𝐀𝟐 𝐅𝟐𝟏
Which is known as the reciprocity relation for the view factors. It
allows the calculation of a view factor from a knowledge of the
other.

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The view factor has proven to be very useful in radiation analysis because it
allows us to express the fraction of radiation leaving a surface that strikes another
surface in terms of the orientation of these two surfaces relative to each other.
The underlying assumption in this process is that the radiation a surface receives
from a source is directly proportional to the angle the surface subtends when
viewed from the source.
This would be the case only if the radiation coming off the source is uniform in all
directions throughout its surface and the medium between the surfaces does not
absorb, emit, or scatter radiation.
That is, it is the case when the surfaces are isothermal and diffuse emitters and
reflectors, and the surfaces are separated by a nonparticipating medium such as
a vacuum or air.
View factors for hundreds of common geometries are evaluated, and the results
are given in analytical, graphical, and tabular form.

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VİEW FACTOR RELATİONS
Radiation analysis on an enclosure consisting of N surfaces requires the evaluation of N2 view
factors.
Once a sufficient number of view factors are available, the rest of them can be determined by utilizing
some fundamental relations for view factors.

1. The Reciprocity Relation

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2. The Summation Rule

The radiation leaving any surface i of an enclosure must be intercepted completely by the
surfaces of the enclosure. Therefore, The sum of the view factors from surface i of an
enclosure to all surfaces of the enclosure, including to itself, must equal unity.

The total number of view factors that need to be

evaluated directly for an N-surface enclosure is

The remaining view factors can be determined

from the equations that are obtained by applying
the reciprocity and the summation rules.

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3. The Superposition Rule
The view factor from a surface i to a surface
j is equal to the sum of the view factors from
surface i to the parts of surface j.
multiply by A1

apply the reciprocity relation

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4. The Symmetry Rule

Two (or more) surfaces that possess symmetry about a third surface will have identical
view factors from that surface.
If the surfaces j and k are symmetric about the surface i then
Fi → j = Fi → k and Fj → i = Fk → i

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View Factors between Infinitely Long Surfaces:
The Crossed-Strings Method

Channels and ducts that are very long in one direction

relative to the other directions can be considered to be
two-dimensional.
These geometries can be modeled as being infinitely long,
and the view factor between their surfaces can be
determined by simple crossed-strings method.

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RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: BLACK SURFACES
When the surfaces involved can be approximated as blackbodies
because of the absence of reflection, the net rate of radiation heat
transfer from surface 1 to surface 2 is

A negative value for Q1 → 2 indicates that net radiation heat

transfer is from surface 2 to surface 1.
The net radiation heat transfer
from any surface i of an N
surface enclosure is

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RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER: DIFFUSE, GRAY
SURFACES

• Most enclosures encountered in practice involve nonblack surfaces,

which allow multiple reflections to occur.
• Radiation analysis of such enclosures becomes very complicated
unless some simplifying assumptions are made.
• It is common to assume the surfaces of an enclosure to be opaque,
diffuse, and gray.
• Also, each surface of the enclosure is isothermal, and both the
incoming and outgoing radiation are uniform over each surface.

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Radiosity For a surface i that is gray and opaque (i = i and i
+ i = 1)
Radiosity J: The total radiation
energy leaving a surface per unit
time and per unit area.

For a blackbody  = 1

The radiosity of a blackbody is equal to its emissive

power since radiation coming from a blackbody is
due to emission only.

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Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface

surface resistance to radiation.

The surface resistance to radiation for a blackbody is zero since i =

1 and Ji = Ebi.
Reradiating surface: Some surfaces are modeled as being
adiabatic since their back sides are well insulated and the net heat
transfer through them is zero.

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Net Radiation Heat Transfer between Any Two Surfaces

space resistance to radiation

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In an N-surface enclosure, the conservation of energy principle requires that the net heat transfer from
surface i be equal to the sum of the net heat transfers from surface i to each of the N surfaces of the
enclosure.

The net radiation flow from a surface through its surface

resistance is equal to the sum of the radiation flows from
that surface to all other surfaces through the
corresponding space resistances.

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Methods of Solving Radiation Problems
In the radiation analysis of an enclosure, either the temperature or the net rate of heat transfer must
be given for each of the surfaces to obtain a unique solution for the unknown surface temperatures
and heat transfer rates.

The equations above give N linear algebraic equations for the determination of the N unknown
radiosities for an N-surface enclosure. Once the radiosities J1, J2, . . . , JN are available, the unknown
heat transfer rates and the unknown surface temperatures can be determined from the above
equations.
Direct method: Based on using the above procedure. This method is suitable when there are a large number of
surfaces.
Network method: Based on the electrical network analogy. Draw a surface resistance associated with each
surface of an enclosure and connect them with space resistances. Then solve the radiation problem by treating it
as an electrical network problem. The network method is not practical for enclosures with more than three or four
surfaces.
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Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures

This important result is applicable to any two gray,

diffuse, and opaque surfaces that form an enclosure.

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 The algebraic sum
Radiation Heat Transfer in of the currents
Three-Surface Enclosures (net radiation heat
transfer) at each
node must equal
zero.
When Qi is specified at surface i
instead of the temperature, the term These equations are to be solved for
(Ebi − Ji)/Ri should be replaced by J1, J2, and J3.
the specified Qi.

Draw a surface resistance

associated with each of the three
surfaces and connect them with
space resistances.

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RADIATION SHIELDS AND THE RADIATION
EFFECTS
Radiation heat transfer between two surfaces can be reduced greatly by inserting a thin,
high-reflectivity (low-emissivity) sheet of material between the two surfaces.
Such highly reflective thin plates or shells are called radiation shields.
Multilayer radiation shields constructed of about 20 sheets per cm thickness separated by
evacuated space are commonly used in cryogenic and space applications.
Radiation shields are also used in temperature measurements of fluids to reduce the error
caused by the radiation effect when the temperature sensor is exposed to surfaces that are
much hotter or colder than the fluid itself.
The role of the radiation shield is to reduce the rate of radiation heat transfer by placing
additional resistances in the path of radiation heat flow.
The lower the emissivity of the shield, the higher the resistance.

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 Radiation heat transfer
between two large parallel
plates

Radiation heat transfer

between two large parallel
plates with one shield

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 If the emissivities of all surfaces are equal

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Radiation Effect on Temperature Measurements

The last term in the equation is due to the radiation effect and represents the radiation correction.
The radiation correction term is most significant when the convection heat transfer coefficient is
small and the emissivity of the surface of the sensor is large.
Therefore, the sensor should be coated with a material of high reflectivity (low emissivity) to reduce
the radiation effect.

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RADIATION EXCHANGE WITH EMITTING
AND ABSORBING GASES
So far we considered radiation heat transfer between surfaces separated by a medium that
does not emit, absorb, or scatter radiation—a nonparticipating medium that is completely
transparent to thermal radiation.
Gases with asymmetric molecules such as H2O, CO2, CO, SO2, and hydrocarbons HmCn
may participate in the radiation process by absorption at moderate temperatures, and by
absorption and emission at high temperatures such as those encountered in combustion
chambers.
Therefore, air or any other medium that contains such gases with asymmetric molecules at
sufficient concentrations must be treated as a participating medium in radiation calculations.
Combustion gases in a furnace or a combustion chamber, for example, contain sufficient
amounts of H2O and CO2, and thus the emission and absorption of gases in furnaces must
be taken into consideration.

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Emissivity and Absorptivity of Gases and Gas Mixtures

The various peaks and dips in the figure

together with discontinuities show clearly
the band nature of absorption and the
strong nongray characteristics. The shape
and the width of these absorption bands
vary with temperature and pressure, but
the magnitude of absorptivity also varies
with the thickness of the gas layer.
Therefore, absorptivity values without
specified thickness and pressure are
meaningless.

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10-11-2025 Module 6: Radiation 27
Two rectangular surfaces are
perpendicular to each other with
a common edge of 2m. The
horizontal plane is 2 m long and
vertical plane is 3 m long. Vertical
plane is at 1200 K and has an
emissivity of 0.4. the horizontal
plane is 180 C and has a
emissivity of 0.3. Determine the
net heat exchange between the
planes.

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Calculate the net radiant heat
exchange per m2 area for two
large parallel plates at
temperatures of 427oC and 27oC.
Є(hot plate) =0.9 and Є(cold plate) =0.6. If
a polished aluminium shield is
placed between them, find the %
reduction in the heat transfer
Є(shield) = 0.4.

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There are two large parallel plane
with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8
exchange heat. Find the
percentage reduction when an
aluminium shield of emissivity
0.04 is placed between them.

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 Thank You

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