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THE FORMATION PROCESS OF REDUPLICATION IN ENGLISH, URDU AND PASHTO: A

CROSS-LINGUISTIC PERSPECTIVE

Ata ur Rahman*1, Dr. Syed Sajjad Ali2, Saddam Hussain3, Said Hussain4

Original Article

1. [Link] in English (Linguistics) University of Lahore.

Corresponding Email: atauom127@[Link]

2. Lecturer in English, NUML (Peshawar)

[Link]: Ssali@[Link]

3. Lecturer in English, University of Malakand.

Email: sadam.khan10022@[Link]

4. [Link] in English (Linguistics) University of Lahore.

Email: saidhussain977@[Link]

Abstract
This research study examines the concept of Reduplication in English, Urdu, and Pashto. The
formations of reduplicated words and their similarities and differences in the reduplicated structures
and lexicons of English, Urdu, and Pashto have been investigated. Data have been analyzed by
using Morphological Doubling Theory (MDT). By applying Abbi’s (1992) model, two basic types of
Reduplication, i.e., Full-Word Reduplication and Partial-Word Reduplication (eco-words) were
analyzed. The sample technique for this study was random sampling. The data for this study were
collected purposefully (Randomly) from English, Urdu, and Pashto books, magazines and
newspapers. The findings of the study show that the formation process of Fu -Reduplication is the
same-by fully duplicating the base form in all the three mentioned languages. Several examples were
examined in these languages and further they have been enlisted separately in the analysis section.
On the other hand, the study shows that the formation process of partial Reduplication varies in these
three languages. In English and Urdu, partial reduplicated words were formed either by vowel
alteration or consonant alteration while in Pashto it was mostly consonant alteration base examples.

Keywords: Abbi’s Model, Consonant Alteration, English, Formation Processes, MDT, Pashto,
Reduplication, Urdu, Vowel Alteration.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the field of Morphology, the term Reduplication refers to the process of repetition in which
the prefix/suffix gains some phonological characteristics of the base word form. Similarly, Abbi (2001)
defines Reduplication as “words formed either by doubling syllables or by duplicating a single word
form (phonological word), completely or partially and the repetition of a word or syllable is made
once.” The nature of language is dynamic not static as new vocabulary items are added to it with the
passage of time. According to Parimalagantham (2009) word formation process is one of the sources
for increasing the vocabulary of a language. He described the process of word formation under four
sub-types; Compounding, Inflection, Derivation, and Reduplication.

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Simplex is the base form of a word and the material added to it is called the Reduplicant
(Hurch, 2005). The classification of Reduplication is viewedfrom the perspective of word-
Reduplication. According to Abbi’s model, Word Reduplication has two major types: Full Word
Reduplication and Partial Word Reduplication. Full word Reduplication can be defined as “The
complete repetition of the root/base word without any syntactic modification. In English, words like;
‘so-so’, ‘pooh-pooh’, while in Urdu language words like; “ek-ek (one), kyakya, and in Pashto, words
like; shpa-shpa (Night), kor-kor (house) are the examples of Full Reduplication.

In Partial Reduplication, the word ‘Partial’ itself specifies that Partial word Reduplication is the
partial repetition or a copy of a syllable. Partial word Reduplication (Eco-construction) is created by
duplicating a portion of the word mostly a syllable, which is the constituent or active part of the word
to be duplicated. The said part can either be a vowel (V) or consonant vowel (CV) or a vowel
consonant (VC).

Partial word Reduplication (Eco-construction) is divided into two major types on the basis of
its formation which is common in almost all the languages. 1. Vowel Alternation (Ablaut) [Link]
Alternation (Onset/Rhyming).Vowel Alternation (Ablaut) is the Reduplication process in which the
vowel of the base word changes or shifts in its Reduplicant forms. Consonant Alternation is the
Reduplication process in which the initial consonant of the root word changes in the reduplicated
copy. It is the replacement of one consonant by another and the reduplicated copies also rhyme with
each other.

In English, words like; “Swish-Swash” (Vowel Alternation), “handy-dandy”, and “teeny-weeny”

(Consonant Alternation)are the examples of partial Reduplication (Omer 2012).In Urdu language
words like;“Parhna-Varhna” (read), “chay-vay” (tea), “Shadi-vadi” (marriage),(Consonant Alternation),
(pûch-pâch‘ask’,dekh-dâkh,‘see’,andbec-bâc (sell),(Vowel Alternation) are the examples of Urdu
Partial Reduplication (Montaut, 2009). In Pashto languagewords like; “sary-mary” (man), “ḍoḍai-
moḍai” (bread), and“Jargee-Margee” (fight), (Consonant Alternation) are the examples of Pashto
Partial Word Reduplication.

1.1. Research Questions

i. What is the formation process of reduplicated words in English, Urdu and Pashto?
ii. How are the formation processes of reduplicated words different in English, Urdu and
Pashto?

1.2. Research Objectives

i. To explore the formations process of Reduplication in English, Urdu andPashto.
ii. To find out the similaritiesanddifferences in the formation process of reduplication in
English, Urdu and Pashto.

2. LITRATURE REVIEW
The proposed study deals with the phenomena of ‘Reduplication in the English, Urdu and
Pashto language’. The term Reduplication is available in various languages of America, Africa, and
Asia. The concept of Reduplication has been explored in a few studies based on Asian languages,
e.g. Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Chinese, Kurdish, etc. In the general view, language is used for
communication purposes. The nature of language is dynamic not static as new vocabulary items
added to it with the passage of time.

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According to Parimalagantham, (2009) word formation process is one of the sources for
increasing the vocabulary of a language. He described the process of word formation under four sub-
types; Compounding, Inflection, Derivation, and Reduplication. The present study focuses on the
concept of Reduplication.

Muhirweand Trosterud, (2008) observed Reduplication in Kinyarwanda Language. They

considered Reduplication as an unsolved problem in the light of computational morphology.
Reduplication is a morphological process where the base is copied wholly or partially. The
researchers explored that Kinyarwanda language contained only full stem Reduplication. Full
Reduplication means copying the entire word. Mostly this concept is found in adverbs and adjectives.

Kinyarwanda Language Examples:

Full word Reduplication: adverbs and adjectives mostly undergo in this type of reduplication.

Adjectives: munini “big” >muninimunini “big”

Muto “small” >mutomuto “small/young

Adverbs: vuba “fast” >vubavuba“very fast”

Buke“little” >bukebuke“very little”

Grammatical Reduplication: when the existing word form got changed and forms a new word
with a distinct meaning.
Kinyarwanda Language: kugenda “to walk” >kugendagenda “to walk around”
Kubunda “to bend” >kubundabunda “to walk bending”

Montaut, (2009) explored the phenomena of Reduplication and echo words in Hindi/Urdu. In
the first section he describes full Reduplication and then in the second section he investigates the
echo construction in both the languages. Initially he describes some example by analyzing
Reduplication in Nominal, Numeral, pronoun, plural nouns, verbs, and adjective. He discussed
certain examples of Hindi/Urdu like;

1) Numeral= bacoNkoek-ektafi do Urdu

Give a toffee to each child)
2) Noun/Pronoun= tumnekyakyadekha Urdu
(What did you see?)
3) Verbs= khate-khate mat bolo Urdu
(Do not speak while eating)

In the next section, he explained the concept of Echo-Construction in Hindi/Urdu. In echo-

construction he described that the initial consonant of a mono-syllabic or poly-syllabic word is
replaced by v-. For example “Parhna-Varhna” (read), “Shadi-vadi” (marriage).

3. METHODOLOGY
Qualitative research has the capability to enact effective arguments about how things work in
a specific context. Qualitative research is also capable of generating well-founded cross-contextual
generalities (Mason, 2002). The researcher has generated contextual arguments on the basis of the
selected examples of Reduplication of English, Urdu, and Pashto. The above stated reasons and
discussion make it easy for the researcher that this research study is qualitative in nature.

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The data for this study were collected purposefully (Randomly) from English, Urdu, and
Pashto books, magazines and newspapers. Firstly, world time monthly magazine, frontier force and
dawn newspaper were the selected sources for English Reduplication. Secondly, monthly magazine
‘Abqari’, weekly magazine ‘Akhbar e jaha’, daily newspaper ‘Aaj, and Urdu books (Zavia, 1, Zavia, 2,
Zavia, 3) were selected for Urdu Reduplication. Thirdly, monthly magazine ‘Pukhtoon’ (May, 2018),
and books like ‘Pohana’, ‘Pukhtoadab’ (Jan, 2017) were selected as sources of data for Pashto
Reduplication.

4. FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

The researcher has generated various themes and codes. Those codes were E1, E2, U1, U2,
and P1, P2,. Thematically, the data were categorized on the basis of Full and Partial Reduplication.
The researcher has collected relevant data related to those generated themes and codes and made
transcription and analysis of that data. Each of the mentioned categories/types of Reduplicationwas
analyzed on the basis of their formation processes where Reduplication takes place. This way of
analyzing the data helped the researcher to observe the patterns and formation of the reduplicated
words in the concerned languages namely English, Urdu and Pashto. Although many languages have
the concept and occurrences of Reduplication but here the researcher has confined himself to only
three languages, i.e. English, Urdu and Pashto.
The researcher has identified and analyzed the formation processes of various reduplicated
words identified in the text of English, Urdu and Pashto language.

Full word Reduplication

Complete word Reduplication is also known as full or total Reduplication. Complete word
Reduplication can be defined as “The complete repetition of the root/base word with some new
meaning or slight semantic modification”. In other words, the entire lexical items or phonological form
of the root/base word is reduplicated.

Full Reduplication in English

Complete/Total Reduplication is the repetition of a stem, root or base word, with minimal or
no phonological changes (Inkelas & Zoll 2005). The construction of Full Reduplication in English
Language is simple (by copying or doubling the base/root word) like in all other [Link]
examples are lists of reduplicated words taken from the Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary, which
depict the common features in this type of Reduplication.

According to the structure and occurrences of these examples, the conception of this theory
(MDT) is directly applicable on them. The theory states that the reduplicated words will be considered
the daughter words of the root word which will be considered as the mother word. So the root/base
word is a mother word and the reduplicated copy/words will be considered as its daughter (Daughter
1 and Daughter 2). ‘Quick’ is a root/mother word and its reduplicative Quick1-Quick2 are its Daughter
1 and 2.

Full-word Reduplication in Urdu

The researcher has both structurally focused on the Urdu Reduplication process. The
following table presents a list of examples of Full Reduplication in Urdu language collected from
various sources. The researcher has analyzed various texts of Urdu magazines, books, newspaper
etc., and collected various examples of Complete/Full Reduplication as a process of word formation.
The collected examples were analyzed and chronologically presented below.

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Full-word Reduplication in Urdu

U1. ‘Sach-Sachbathao, Warna ma therijan ley lun’

(Speak the truth or else I will kill you)

In the above examples the word ‘sach’ is reduplicated. This is an example of complete word
Reduplication. In this example the speaker/writer tends to repeat/duplicate the word ‘sach’ in order to
make it clear to the listener that he must speak the truth (Ahmad, 2007).

U2. ‘Yahan per naqal buhuth berhgaehain waghyra-waghyra’

(Cheating has increased here etc)

The word ‘waghyra’ is fully reduplicated by denoting that cheating as well as some other
tactics and tricks are on the rise here but those were not explicitly mentioned. The word ‘waghyra’ is
fully reduplicated in the above example. According to MDT Theory ‘waghyra’ is the root/mother word
and the reduplicated ‘waghyra-waghyra’ is its daughter one and two (Ahmad, 2005).

Full-word Reduplication in Pashto

Accord ing to Montaut (2001:161) the concept of Reduplication in Indo-Aryan languages was
explored in very few research studies. Similarly, Abbi (1985:159) claims that, insufficient study has
been made on Reduplication in Pashto language. The researcher has collected various examples of
Complete/Full Reduplication from Pashto books (Pohana, pukhtoadab), research papers and
magazines (Pukhtoon, Panjkora) and analyzed them accordingly.

Examples:

(P1) ‘Yao sary pa zooraaozar-zarlagyawo’

(A man was shouting hurriedly)

In the above examples ‘zar-zar’ is fully reduplicated. The formation process is similar as in
English and Urdu by duplicating the whole word as it is in the base form. The reduplicant ‘zar-zar’ is
used to signify and emphasize how quickly the person was shouting (Dad, 2017, P.49).

(P2) ‘Haga Chinayi guldan pa mdzaka dana-dana sho’

(That Chinese vase broke into pieces on the ground)

The above example has the noun ‘dana’ (piece) in singular form (plural form would have
been ‘dane’ (pieces).The formation process is the same as in the above and defined by MDT theory.
The base form of the word is reduplicated fully without any change during the formation process
(Widmark, 2011).

Partial word Reduplication (Eco-construction)

The word ‘Partial’ itself specifies that Partial word Reduplication is the partial repetition or
copy of a syllable or a phoneme of the base/root word that carries a syntactic and semantic
[Link] (1992) elucidates that a partial word Reduplication (Eco-construction) is created by
duplicating a portion of the word mostly a syllable, which is the constituent or active part of the word
to be duplicated. The said part can either be a vowel (V) or consonant vowel (CV) or a vowel
consonant (VC).

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Partial-Word Reduplication in English

Partial word Reduplication in English is also formulated in the same way as discussed in the
previous two paragraphs above. Partial word Reduplication (Eco-construction) is divided into two
major types on the basis of its formation which is common in almost all the languages. 1. Vowel
Alternation (Ablaut) [Link] Alternation (Onset/Rhyming).

Vowel Alternation in English

Vowel Alternation (Ablaut) is the Reduplication process in which the vowel of the base word
changes or shifts in its reduplicant forms. In case of English Language, these vowel Alternation
processes of Reduplication/reduplicated words are mostly formed by the replacement of an 'i' vowel
sound into an 'a' or 'o' Vowel sound in the second part of the reduplicated words. Examples were:
Chit-Chat, tip-top, zig-zag, etc.
The MDT theory by Inkelas & Zoll (2005) is also applicable in this section because the
Mother/root word in Vowel Alternation creates its copy of Daughter 1 and 2 with some syllabic change
(vowel change). For example, the word ‘chit’ is a Mother word and the reduplicant ‘chit-chat’ are its
Daughter one and two. Same is the case with all the above examples.

Reduplication of Vowel Alternation in English is mostly formed with the replacement of ‘i’
vowel into ‘a’ vowel or the ‘i’ vowel into ‘o’ vowel. For example, the word ‘Chit’ has ‘i’ vowel replaced
into ‘a’ in ‘Chat’ as “Chit-Chat”. The word ‘Tip’ has ‘i’ vowel replaced into ‘o’ in ‘Top’ as “Tip-Top”.

Consonant Alternation (Onset/Rhyming) in English

Consonant Alternation is the Reduplication process in which the initial consonant of the root
word changes in the reduplicated copy. It is the replacement of one consonant by another and the
reduplicated copies also rhyme with each other.

Words like Walkie-Talkie. Nitty-Gritty, Teeny-Weeny etc are formed by the process of
Consonant Alternation in English (OALD Dictionary, 2015).The reduplicated words are formed by
Consonant Alternation in which the initial Consonant sound is replaced and copied with the rest of the
root word. The ‘Wa’ consonant sound in “Walky” is replaced with ‘Ta’ consonant in “Talky” as “Walky-
Talky”. The ‘Ni’ consonant in ‘Nitty’ is replaced with ‘Gri’ in ‘Gritty’ as “Nitty-Gritty.

The concept of ‘Mother and Daughter’ reduplicated word in (MDT) theory of Inkelas&Zoll
(2005) is also rightfully applicable to the above listed examples. The word “Walky” is a mother word
and the reduplicant “Walky-Talky” are its Daughter one and Daughter two.

Partial-Word Reduplication in Urdu

Partial-Word Reduplication or eco-construction is defined as ‘part of the root word is copied
or duplicated to form a new word.’ The concept of partial Reduplication is the same as discussed in
the previous section but in this section the researcher analyzes its occurrences and formation in the
Urdu language. Urdu is a rich eco-constructed language.

Vowel Alteration in Urdu

The formation process of Vowel Alternation in Urdu is mostly made with the
replacement of vowel sound in the middle of the root words. The mechanism of vowel change is;
replacement of ‘i:’ vowel into ‘a’ vowel or the replacement of ‘u:’ vowel into ‘a’ vowel. The reduplicated
word ‘puch-pach’ has a vowel shift from ‘u:’ into ‘a’ and the reduplicated word ‘dekh-dakh’ has a vowel
shift from ‘i:’ into ‘a’.

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Examples:
(U1) “kisî se pûch-pâchlenâ”
(You just ask from somebody)
In the above example (U1) the word ‘pûch-pâch’ is partially reduplicated (Vowel Alteration). The
reduplicated words are formed by adding the vowel ‘a’ instead of ‘u:’ vowel in order to make it ‘pûch-
pâch’. The (MDT) theory is applicable on the above analyzed example. The word ‘Puch’ is a mother
word and the reduplicated word ‘puch-pach’are its Daughter words (Montaut, 2010).

(U2) “dekh-dâkhlenâzarâdhyân se”

(See-echo take little attention with)

In this example (U2) the word ‘dekh-dâkh’ (look/see) is partially reduplicated. Formation process of
the above reduplicated word is made by replacing the ‘i:’ vowel with the ‘a’ vowel. The rest of the
word is copied except the middle ‘i:’ vowel. The example (U2) is also formed according to the concept
of (MDT) theory (Montaut, 2010).

Consonant Alteration in Urdu

In spoken Urdu, the eco-construction is often formed by replacing the initial consonant by ‘V’
consonant to make a new reduplicated eco-word. For example: The word ‘Nam’ (name) into “Nam-
Vam”, the word ‘Paisa’ (Money) into “Paisa-Vaisa”, the word ‘Sheesha’ (Glass) into “Sheesha-
Veesha”, etc. However, some construction does not follow this pattern like‘Suthree-Nathree’ (Clean),
‘EkaDuka’ (very few), etc.

Consonant Alteration in Urdu

Examples:

(UI) “Eski tasveery gahee-bagahee bekjathi the”

(His pictures are sold everywhere)

In the above example (U1) the word ‘gahee-bagahee’ is partially reduplicated (eco-
constructed). The reduplicated words are formed by adding the consonant ‘ba’ to the initial consonant
‘ga’ in order to make it ‘gahee-bagahee’. The (MDT) theory is applicable on the above analyzed
example. The word ‘gahee’ is a mother word and the reduplicated word ‘gahee1-bagahee2’ is its
Daughter words (Daughter #1 and #2) (Ahmad, (2005).

(U2) “Laken usey deen ke hawaly sa zeyada Soj-Boj na thi”

(But he does not possess enough knowledge regarding religion)

In the example (U2) the word ‘Soj’ is partially reduplicated and the initial consonant‘s’ is
replaced with ‘b’ and make an eco-word “Soj-Boj” (Knowledge and so on). The concept of MDT
theory by Inkelas & Zoll (2005) is also applicable to these examples. The word ‘Soj’ is the Mother
word and the reduplicated words ‘Soj1-Boj2’ are its Daughter #1 and #2 (Ahmad, 2005).

Partial Word Reduplication in Pashto

In this section the researcher has analyzed the concept of Partial-Word Reduplication (eco-
construction) in Pashto language. Various partial reduplicated occurrences are probed and analyzed
terms of their form and function. The most common way to create/form an echo-word in Pashto is to

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replace the initial consonant with ‘M’ in the reduplicated form but some other syllables or letters are
also used for constructing partially reduplicated words or eco-words.

Examples:
(P1) “Ajmala zoya! Pohantūn-mohantūnpreẓ`da”
(Dear Ajmal! Leave university)

In the above example (P1) the word ‘Pohantūn’ (University) is partially reduplicated. The eco-
word is formed by replacing the initial consonant ‘p’ with the consonant ‘m’ to make it “Pohantūn-
mohantūn”. According to (MDT) theory the word ‘Pohantun’ is a mother word and the reduplicated
copies ‘Pohantun1-mohantun2’ are it’s Daughters (Daughter #1 and #2) (Pollock, 2014).

(P2) Jargee Margee homshoro di”

(The gathering/councils are started)

In the example (P2) the word ‘Jargee’ (Councils) is partially reduplicated (Eco-construction). The eco-
word “Jargee-Margee” is formed by replacing the initial consonant ‘j’ of the base word with consonant
‘M’ of the reduplicated word. The word ‘Jargee’ is considered as a Mother word and the reduplicated
copy ‘Jargee-Margee’ are its daughter words (Seemab, 2018, P.20).
It is clear now that Pashto language is very rich in terms of Partial-Word Reduplication. The
process of its formation is very common and mostly similar (By replacing the initial syllable with the
consonant ‘M’ in the reduplicated words) to make it an eco-word.
[[

5. RESULTSAND DISCUSSIONS
It is shown from the previous research studies that the phenomenon of Reduplication has
been explored in different languages. Most of the researchers have carried out the study on Asian
languages such as (Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Kurdish, Chines, etc.) to investigate the concepts, functions
and theories of reduplication. Asad, (2015) in his article entitled “Reduplication in Modern Maithili”.
The researcher purpose was to present systematically the concept of Reduplication, its patterns and
structures in the modern Maithili language.
Shlyakhova, (2013) has written an article entitle “Study Reduplication in Finno-Ugrian
Languages of Permic Group”. The researcher observed full and partial Reduplication. The focus was
on full and non-full Reduplication in permic languages. In permic languages full Reduplicated words
are: “lozos-lozos”, “ylyn-ylyn” and “kuzh-kuzh”. In Komi-Permyak language, there was the use of twin
words while in Kumi and Udmurt languages. There were compound words like: “dedto-babto”
(grandfather and grandmother). The last section of this article is the semantics of Reduplication.

Till now English, Urdu, and more specifically Pashto language has not been investigated in
terms of Reduplication, That is why the researcher has tried to explore the phenomena of
Reduplication especially its formation process in English, Urdu, and Pashto language to fill this gape.

6. CONCLUSION
Reduplication is a major grammatical feature of English, Urdu, and Pashto. Full-Word
Reduplication was the most frequently used word formation process in Urdu and Pashto as compared
to English. The formation processes of Full-Word Reduplication were common in English, Urdu, and
Pashto (by copying the root word as it is).

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The formation processes of partial reduplicated words in all the three languages were
different from each other. English and Urdu had two types of eco-formation. One was vowel
Alternation and the other was consonant Alternation. The formation process of partial Reduplication
(Consonant Alteration) in Urdu was most affected with the replacement of “v” consonant of the root
word such as ‘teeny-weeny’, ‘chae-vae’ etc.

On the other hand the formation process of Vowel Alteration in Urdu was mostly made with
the replacement of vowel sound in the middle of the root words. The mechanism of vowel change is;
replacement of ‘i:’ vowel into ‘a’ vowel or the replacement of ‘u:’ vowel into ‘a’ vowel such as ‘bhir-
bhar’, ‘thek-thak’, etc. Pashto has a very common way of forming partial reduplicated words. It is by
replacement of the initial syllable with the consonant “M” such as ‘ḍoḍai-moḍai’, ‘sary-mary’ etc.

The concept of Reduplication was found to be present and functional in all the three
languages but was also found to be more similar in its form and function in Urdu and Pashto as
compared to English language.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS
In the light of this study the following recommendations were offered:

1. The analysis of this study shows that Reduplication is a frequently recurring feature in all the
three languages (English, Urdu, and Pashto). The analysis of formation processes of
Reduplication opens up new avenues for research and poses questions and queries to be
answered through further investigation.

2. This research study showcased the formation processes of partial and full-word
Reduplication in English, Urdu, and Pashto. The present analysis also recommends that
other researchers can apply the above mentioned features to other types of Reduplication for
more investigation and depth of the study.

3. The Researcher has applied Morphological Doubling Theory (MDT) presented by Inkelas &
Zoll (2005) for the investigation and analysis of the presented data. Other researchers can
analyze the same languages and examples by applying other models and theories of
Reduplication. For example, by applying Optimal Theory (OT) which was put forward by
Prince and Smolensky (1993) to the similar topic and data may give some more profound
result and widen the present concept.

4. This study has focused only on word-Reduplication (Full-word Reduplication and Partial-
word Reduplication). Therefore, it is recommended for other researchers to highlight and
investigate other types of Reduplication in these languages (English, Urdu, and Pashto) in
order to extend the understanding of the concept of Reduplication.

5. Since this was a cross linguistics study in which three languages were under observation at
same time, therefore a full investigation should be done on Pashto Language as there is very
limited research work done on Pashto in terms of Reduplication. Similar case is with Urdu
Language where limited amount of attention has been given so far.

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Ahmad, A. (2007). Zavia 2. Lahore: Sang e Mil Publications, Lahore.

Ahmad, S. (2020). January 18). Khali NehreKorheKeDher. Daily Aaj, pp. 6.

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PJSEL Vol 9 (1) DECEMBER 2022: ISSN 2521-8123 (Print) 2523-1227 (Online)