Sorghum(Sorghum bicolor – Poaceae) -Jowar

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
• Jowar’ or ‘ jwar’ or ‘cholam’ or ‘ jola’ in India and ‘ guinea corn’ in Europe
• Sorghum is the fourth major food grain of the world, particularly Africa and Asia used in various
forms, similar to rice as cooked food, malted, flour for Dosai and making Chapathi or Rotti, and also a
good source of dry & green fodder, cattle and poultry feed.
• Third important staple food crop of India and entire Asia and Africa.
• At global level, sorghum grains are mostly known as animal feed and its residues as fodder
(green or dry )
• Drought Resistant Crop- hence widely accepted in most rain fed areas.
• It is grown both on marginal and rich lands- with or without irrigation.
• It is also used as industrial raw material, in recent years, to produce ethanol & other liquors.
• Sorghum is mainly consumed as roti, popped sorghum (India), porridge (Africa), sweet syrup in
condiments/ breads/ biscuits (USA).
• It is known for its low fat (3%), starch rich ( > 70%), high protein (12-13%) flour, deficient in
arginine, glycine, tyrosine and methionine
• Sorghum has more iron (more than 70 ppm) and zinc (more than 50 ppm) in the grain, and hence
useful to reduce micronutrient malnutrition globally
• Sorghum stems are sweetish in taste. Specific varieties with higher sucrose in stem are called
sweet sorghum. Sweet sorghum stems can be blended with sugarcane to produce sugar. More
popularly, they are used to produce ethyl alcohol.
Grain contain 12.3% protein, 3.6% fat & 75.8% starch / carbohydrate.

5. Drought & heat resistant C4 Plant,

It is a drought resistant because
a) Endodermis is having a layer of silica
b) Waxy coating on the leaf surface
c) Leaf movement: Leaf folds upon reduced soil moisture and reduce the transpiring area.
ORIGIN AND HISTORY
• North East Africa.
• Domestication of sorghum started in Ethiopia and Egypt around 3000 years back.
• In India, it might have been introduced through early sailors well before Christian era but not earlier
to 1500 BC.
• It was introduced to America and Australia about 125 years back, and Mediterranean / middle eastern
countries started sorghum cultivation 300 years back
• ICRISAT in India is biggest repository of sorghum germ plasm. Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria also has
large collection of sorghum germ plasm.
• Distribution: Major countries are India, USA, Brazil, Argentina, China, Nigeria, Sudan. In India, it is staple
food crop of North Karnataka, Maharashtra, AP, Gujarat, MP and Rajasthan.
AREA AND DISTRIBUTION
 • It is grown on 40 million ha with 62 million tons in 105 countries.
• USA, India, México, Nigeria, Sudan and Ethiopia are the major producers. (Australia, Brazil,
Argentina, China, Mali, Egypt, Niger, Tanzania)
• More than 90 % of the world’s sorghum area lies in the developing countries, mainly in Africa and
Asia.
• About 20 % of global sorghum area is in India.
• India contributes 14 % in global production ( av. Productivity 970 Kg/ha).
• Higher productivity is found in Egypt (5.6 tons/ha) and USA (4.5 tons/ha) and Argentina (4.7 tons/ha),
although global productivity is 1.57 tons/ha
• In India, Maharashtra (50 % area), Karnataka (25 % area) and states like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and parts of M.P.

CLASSIFICATION
More than 27 species of genus Sorghum are identified. Out of them Sorghum bicolor is commercially grown
sorghum. S. halepense is natural grass [ in USA it is considered as invasive weed].
S. leiocladum is a wild sorghum in Australia. [Link] is called downs sorghum.
A sub species of [Link] called drummondi is commonly called as Sudan grass- commonly grown for fodder
purposes.
Cultivated commercial grain sorghum is also classified based on its season of cultivation like kharif jowar, rabi
jowar and summer jowar [ classification popular in India]

Classification Based on use

a) Grain sorghum
b) Forage sorghum: Called as sorgos, have sweet, tall, thin stem
c) Sweet sorghum: Has more sugar, brix, used for extraction of molasses, used for extraction of ethanol.
Classification Based on spikelet type
a. Basic races : 1. bicolor (cultivated sorghum), 2. guinea 3. caudatum 4. kafir 5. durra.
b. Hybrid races : Guinea bicolor, Caudatum bicolor etc.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF SORGHUM

Sorghum is a diploid (2n=20) annual C4 grass with a high photosynthetic efficiency.
Cultivated Sorghum bicolor has wide variability in leaf number, leaf size and shape, compactness and type of
ear, grain color, awns as well thickness of stem
• Roots: are well developed and permanent, except single seminal root, which disintegrates. Roots are
thin, firm and more proliferous.
• Coronary permanent roots develop from the lower most node of stem, while prop roots may develop
from 2-3 nodes above soil for anchorage. Most absorbing roots are restricted to 15- 20 cm depth,
although some may reach 1-1.25 m at later stages of growth.
• Roots known to secrete root exudates called sorgoleone- which has Allelopathic Effect on
succeeding crop and weeds.
 • Stem: up to 4 m or more hight, having 7-16 nodes, sweet [except in grain types] and solid
Generally cultivated types do not tiller.
• Leaves vary from 7-24, lanceolate in shape, alternate with varying width( 2-13 cm) and length (30-140
cm). Leaves roll in wards- in drought. Leaf sheath encircles the inter node below. Leaf sheath may have
powdery bloom of wax
• Grain is a caryopsis. Rounded, pointed at base. Its seed coat color may be white, pink, yellow,
brownish yellow. Caryopsis consists of soft and floury endosperm, pericarp, testa and germ
• Panicles: ( commonly called as heads) 8-40 cm long, loose or compact; Panicle loose or open, the upper
branches slender and often drooping.
• Peduncle (neck) may be straight or curved; Panicle has both sessile spikelet, and pedicillate spikelet.
• Each sessile spikelet has two glumes, enclosing two florets- lower sterile and upper perfect. The latter
floret results into grain. Pedicillate spikelet, having no functional ovary, generally withers off, once
sessile floret develops in to grain..
• Being self pollinated crop, the flowers are pollinated from the flowers of the same panicle. But,
natural crossing may also happen. Stigma viability is extended and extended anthesis ensures self
pollination

SOIL REQUIREMENT
• Sorghum grows well in clay rich soils. But, it can be grown in clay loam, sandy clay, red loamy, alluvial
soil, under irrigation/ assured rainfall.
• Under rainfed rabi situations, vertisols are best
• It is considered as slightly resistant to salinity [up to 6.8 dSm-1; pH up to 8.5]. Germination and
vegetative growth stages are less sensitive to salinity.
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT
It is sub-tropical to tropical, short day plant prefers moderate temperature. Minimum temperature of 7- 100C is
essential & opt temp of 26-300C is ideal. Drought resistant & require a rainfall of 400-1000 mm.

• Being a tropical crop, it can be grown during all three seasons in tropics and during warmer months in
subtropics/temperate. But it should have frost free atmosphere and cannot be grown beyond 40oN and
40oS.
• Sorghum has unique character of ability to recover after drought or after temporary
submergence. Despite being drought resistant characters, it can respond well to irrigation at critical
stages.
• Optimum temperature for growth is 26-30o C, with temperatures below 15oC- seriously affecting growth.
The plant can with stand higher temperatures up to 35oC, but not without yield reduction. Higher
temperature- delays panicle initiation/ flowering. Low temperatures<20 oC can delay/ reduce
germination
Growing degree days till maturity- 1315 [in excess of 10oC] It is a short day plant, requiring longer nights to
flower. Under favorable temperatures, photoperiod is dominant factor. Delayed flowering may reduce the yield-
under water stress, otherwise increase the yield
Sorghum can be grown in annual rainfall range 400-1000 mm- but well adapted to semi arid climate receiving
350-400 mm [coinciding with season]
In vertisols, with predominant post monsoon rains, rabi jowar is grown on stored moisture in rainless period.
Rabi jowar has special quality – due to maturity in summer season.
• It is a short day plant
 • Optimum temperature for growth: 26-30˚C; seriously affect if temperature is less than 15 ˚C
• Can withstand higher temperature up to 35 ˚C
• Higher temperature delays panicle initiation/flowering
• < 20 ˚C reduce germination
• Annual rainfall: 400-1000 mm
• Rabi jowar has high quality due to maturity in summer season.
REASONS FOR DROUGHT RESISTANCE IN SORGHUM
• Slow shoot growth till roots are well developed
• Higher root weight/ volume than most other cereals [ well proliferated root system]
• Maintain high turgor pressure during stress by reducing leaf osmotic potential
• Produce large epicuticular waxes to reduce transpiration
• Roll the leaf surface under stress by special motor cells in leaf tissues

VARIETIES AND HYBRIDS

Large scale jump in productivity was witnessed after hybrids [by use of male sterile lines] and improved varieties
were released starting from 1964. 23 hybrids ( of which are rabi specific) and 24 improved varieties are
released till now. Out of them some are more consistent and popular in Karnataka: Mugti,
Maldandi (M-35-1)

Varieties: Hybrids: CSH-5, 9, 1, 2, 6, 10 (Rabi), 14

Composites / HYV: CSV-1, 3, 4, 5, DSV-1, 2, 3
Season: Kharif (June-July), Rabi (Sep-Feb), summer (Jan-Feb), Sowing in Apr-May results in poisoning.

Inputs: Seeds – Grain purpose: 8 - 12 kg ha-1, Fodder: 30-35 kg ha-1. Depth of sowing: 3-4 cm FYM
/ Compost: 7.5 t ha-1 Bio-fertilizer: Azospirullum – 400 g (seed treatment)
-1
NPK (kg ha ): 80-100 : 40-60 : 40 50% N Basal & remaining 30-35 DAS
Sowing: Broadcasting, Line sowing (Plough sole & Seed drill) at 45 X 10-15 cm
Land preparation; Similar to other dry crops

NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
Sorghum is nitro positive crop.
It is useful to supply N (40-100 kg/ha) in 2-3 splits (grain filling stage), especially under irrigation, whereas
under rain fed conditions, N fertilizers are given as basal. Invariably P (50-70 kg/ha) & K (30- 50) fertilizers
are supplied as basal dose.
In soils deficient, zinc sulphate (20-15 kg/ha) and ferrous sulphate (10-12 kg /ha) can be applied

WATER MANAGEMENT
• Water requirement of sorghum is 30-40 cm.
• Generally it is grown as rain fed crop. However, in case of no rains, crop may be irrigated once or twice –
especially in heading and grain development stages. Whenever, irrigated, it is always useful to adopt the
ridges & furrow method
• IW/CPE ratio of 0.5
Critical stages: Knee high, flowering & grain filling
Weed management: Keep the field weed free for first 35 DAS. Hand weeding, Interculture operation, pre-
emergent application of Atrazin / simazin @ 2.5 ltr ha-1 and Post-emergent application of 2-4 D.

WEED MANAGEMENT
• High density population (75000/ha) create shade and smother the weeds after 30-40 days.
• It can suppress the weeds due to its allelopathic affect.
• It is necessary to control weeds till 40 days by measures like Atrazine 50 WP @1.3 g/litre or
Metribuzin 70 WP @ 2 g/litre or hand weeding or intercultivation.
• 2, 4 – D Sodium salt 80 % @ 1.3 g/litre spray after 30-35 DAS
COMMON WEEDS IN SORGHUM
Solanum nigrum, Cyperus rotundus, Euphorbia hirta, Lucas aspera, Cynadon dactylon, Sorghum
halepense, Digitaria sanguinalis, Elusine indica, and Celosia argentena

STRIGA ( WITCH WEED): Striga asiatica, [Link], S. hermonthica

• It is semi root parasite- semi-root parasite in sorghum, maize, sugarcane and reduces the yield markedly
• Its infestation can be devastative
• It infests roots of sorghum and reduces the growth & yield of sorghum
• It appears on surface after sufficient damage is already caused
Striga can be controlled by
1) Post emergence application of 2,4- D Na salt at 2.0 kg/ha at 25 to 30 DAS
2) Glyphosate 41 % 3-4 ml per litre
3) 2, 4 D 80%+ Metribuzin 70 WP- 2.6+1.7 g/litre
4) In striga endemic area, jowar crop loss is up to 90 %, and can be trapped by using crops like pulses,
cotton, groundnut in crop [Link] induce germination of weed seeds, but they are not parasitised
5) Using germination stimulants like Strigol and Ethylene gas as pre-plant incorporation
6) Higher N and FYM application, Spraying Urea 10% solution 25-30 DAS
7) Flooding the field
CROPPING SYSTEMS
• Sorghum is grown in sequence with crops like wheat, pea, Bengal gram, potato ( in north India) and cotton,
tobacco, or ragi [in south India].
• In rabi dominant area, systems like groundnut- sorghum and pulses – sorghum are practiced.
• Sorghum fits into three crop sequences also. Some three crop sequences are Sorghum- wheat- moong,
Sorghum- wheat-lobia [in North India] as well as Sorghum- ragi-groundnut [ South India]
• Sorghum is also grown with soybean, pigeonpea, moong and blackgram in intercropping systems.
Some hybrids like CSH-6 are considered more suitable for intercropping systems
• Rabi sorghum is generally intercropped with Bengal gram, safflower or even sunflower
PESTS AND DISEASES
• Sorghum Shoot Fly ,Stem Borer ,Earhead Bug
• Downy mildew ,Leaf rust ,Leaf blight, Cercospora leaf spot, Grain Smut, Loose smut
HARVESTING AND POST HARVESTING
• Less than 25% moisture, even though leaves are green. Harvesting is done by cutting stalks at the base or
by removing ear
 • Threshing is done by thresher or by stone rolls by bullocks. Grains are dried up to 13 % moisture, under
shade
YIELD: Under irrigation 40-45 q/ha of grain and 10-12 t/ha of stover can expected.
Under rain fed conditions, grain yield may be reduced to 20-25 q/ha and stover yield up to 5-6 t/ha
Recent advances
Ratooning : Regrowth from the base of stubble- Harvest the main crop leaving 15 cm stubble, Irrigate
immediately after cutting the main crop within 24 hrs and apply basal nitrogen
• It is practiced in sorghum mostly for fodder production and rarely for grain production.
• Ideally, 5-6 side shoots could be grown for fodder, while one shoot should be allowed for grain
production.
• Ratoon crop matures earlier by at least 10-15 days
Sweet sorghum: Harvest grains at physiological maturity and green stalk / cane should be harvested within 12
hours after harvest of earhead and crushed immediately to extract juice for syrup or jaggery or ethanol production.
Bad qualities of sorghum:
1. Sorghum Poisoning: Young sorghum plants when fed to animals causes death. . It is due to the presence of
cynogenic glucoside called ‘Dhurrin’. Its content is higher specially if the plants are subjected to drought & plant
utilize larger amount of nitrogen. When 4-5 kg of such plant fed to cattle, the Dhurrin is hydrolysed in the
stomach of animal and releases HCN, which is poisonous. This is referred as ‘Sorghum Poisoning’. Dhurrin
content is maximum at 30 DAS & leaves contain higher dhurrin (48 mg / 100 g fresh weight) than stem (6.5 mg) &
roots (0.05 mg).
Sorghum poisoning can be managed through
1. Sorghum shouldn’t be harvested till it attain 60 cm height, 45-50 DAS, flowering
2. Apply P, K, S & Ca under drought condition which reduces the Dhurrin content
3. Irrigation under stress
4. If unavoidable to use, dry the plant & use which make Dhurrin to volatilize
5. Give molasses to animal
6. Intravenous injection of Sodium thio sulphate will restore oxygen supply & prevent death of animal.
2. Sorghum injury: Sorghum stubbles / roots have high C:N ratio (50:1), ie., it contain low amount of ‘N’. Hence
microbes take the soil ‘N’ for decomposition than from the decomposed stubble, which causes temporary
immobilization of soil ‘N’. Hence succeeding crop after sorghum is affected due to N deficiency in the early stage
called sorghum injury. Succeeding crops need higher N.
Root exudate sorgoleone and other chemicals or even incorporation of its residues do not allow next crop to be
established immediately after sorghum. This is called Sorghum Effect.
3. Pellagara: nutritional disorder due to presence of high amount of Leucine : iso-leucine ratio (3.4). This disease is
common in Africa.
PEARLMILLET - BAJRA (Pennisityum glaucum) (Pennisityum glaucum) Poacea
Of the 150 sps of Pennesitum,.glaucum is the cultivated species for grain and [Link] is the forage
species.

Origin:- Africa

Economic importance
It is a stable food crop of about 100 million peoples in rural areas of India and SubSaharan Africa.
❖ Roti or Chapati, which are unleaved flat breads prepared using pearlmillet flour are common
in Asia.
❖ Porridges and cooked grains are also used.
❖ In Northern India, it is prepared during winter while wheat becomes common in Summer diet.
❖ Fried preparations, foods such as fermented products and beer.
❖ Variety of pan cakes are prepared using pearlmillet flour in Africa and pearl millet beer is used
throughout Africa.
❖ Fura or cheese are the traditional African snacks prepared using steamed pearl millet flour and
cream.
❖ It is used as fodder in Africa and Asia.
❖ Oxalic acid content is very high. So it is not relished by cattle.

Quality of grain: Rich in protein (12.6%) and rich in fat (5%), fibre 1.2% and 60.70% of
Carbohydrate.
❖ Normally rich in Ca, [Link] and rich in Carotenoides In
Central America, it is mainly cultivated for forage purpose.
❖ It is grown as pasture grass.

Area, Production and Distribution

World : It is largely grown in India. The important pearl millet producing countries are India, Africa,
Pakistan, China, Sudan and Egypt.

In India (1996-97):Area : 10 [Link], Production: 7.9 m.t and Productivity: 791 kg/ha

Area:Rajasthan > Maharastra > Gujarath > UP (4.7

[Link]) (1.95 [Link]) (1.0 [Link]) ([Link])

Production:Rajasthan > Maharastra > Gujarat > TN > UP

Stages of Crop growth

1. Seedling stage : 1-18 days
2. Tillering stage : 19.35 days
3. Flowering phase : 36-55 days
4. Maturity phase : 56-85 days

SOIL REQUIREMENT : It is grown in a wide variety of soils, but being sensitive to water logging, It does best on
well drained sandy loams. It is sensitive to acidic soil. It is grown successfully on black cotton soil, alluvial
soils and red soils of India.
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT: It is a rapid growing, warm weather crop. It has high degree of resistance for
drought. The best temperature for the growth of bajra is between 20? and 28? C. It can withstand even
desiccation.
It is suitable for the areas having rainfall ranges from 400-750 mm. Even 150 mm of rainfall is sufficient for the
productivity. Rainfall during vegetative phase is highly favourable, while rainfall at flowering is not conducive, as it
washes off the pollen and there is poor seed setting. The crop does better in light showers followed by bright
sunshine. Usually bajra is grown, where it is not possible to grow sorghum because of high temperature and low
rainfall. It is grown as kharif crop in Northern India, while in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Punjab, it is grown
under irrigated condition during summer.

Time of sowing : in India

Kharif (rainfed) : June to October
Winter (rainfed) : Nov to Feb
Summer(rainfed) : March to June
During summer, it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab and Gujarat as an irrigated crop.
Hybrids: Under All India Co-ordinated Research project many hybrids have been developed. Using
Cytoplasmic male sterile line (CMS line) five hybrids have been developed. Among them HB3 is the best. But
all hybrids are susceptible to downy mildew. To overcome the downy mildew, CMS line MS.5071 was
used and five New Hybrid bajra were developed. Among them, NHB.5 is the best for disease resistance and
wide adaptability besides giving higher yield.

X6: 90-100 days. Irrigated crop : 3236 kg/ha. Rainfed condition : 2394 kg/ha. Resistant to downy
mildew. 1000 grain weight: 7.7 to 8.8 g

X7: 90 days, both irrigated and rainfed. Irrigated crop : 3295 kg/ha. Rainfed : 2513 kg/ha. Resistant to downy
mildew. 100 grain weight 8-9g.

Composite : WC.C 75 (World Cumbu Composite developed at ICRISAT, Hyderabad). Suited for both
irrigated and rainfed. Duration : 95 days. Irrigated crop : 3.0 t, Rainfed 2.0 t/ha.

Variety : Co7 : 90-100 days, Rainfed : 2.5 t/ha. Irrigated 3.5 t/ha. Resistant to downy mildew. K3: 85
days.

Method of raising Crop

1) Irrigated condition :
a. Raising seedling in the Nursery and transplanting.
b. Direct sowing.

2) Rainfed crop: Direct seeding either broadcasting or sowing behind country plough. Seed rate
: Direct sowing : 5 kg/ha.
Transplanting : 3.75 kg/ha.

Seed Treatment
1) Using salt solution (1 kg of NaCl in 10 lit of water) remove ergot affected seeds and sclerotia
to prevent primary infections and shade dry.
2) Seed treatment with fungicides 2g/kg of seed .
3) Azospirillum seed treatment (3 pockets or 600 g/ ha seed rate)

Nursery preparation for transplanted crop :Nursery area required is 7.5 cent (300 m2) for one ha. Plough
the land and bring it to fine tilth. Apply 750 kg of FYM or compost and incorporate. Form raised beds of
3.0 m x 1.5m with 30 cm channel. Open small rills not deeper than 1cm on the raised bed. Sow 3.75 kg of seeds
in 7.5 cents at the rate 0.5 kg/cent and cover the seeds and sprinkle 500 kg of FYM or compost for covering
the seeds.

Field preparation for both irrigated and Rainfed crop

i) Deep ploughing with Iron plough and with country plough twice to bring fine tilth.
ii) If there is hard pan, use chisels plough.
iii) Incorporate 12.5 t/ha of FYM or compost during last ploughing.
iv) Apply Azospirillum to the soil @ 10 packets/ha (2 kg).

Land Shaping: For irrigated crop (transplanting) either form ridges and furrows at 45cm apart or beds
of convenient size depending upon the water availability.
For rainfed crop, flat sowing is followed.

Transplanting
• *Optimum age of seedling for planting is 15-18 days
• Adopt spacing of 45 x 15cm for all the varieties except Co7.
• For Co7, spacing is 35 X15cm.
• (similar row spacing is adopted for rainfed crop also)
• Dipping the roots in bio-fertilizer Slurry (dissolve 5 pockets of Azospirillum in 40lit of water)
• for 15-30 minutes.
• Plant one seedling per hill to a depth of 3 to 5 cm

Direct sown crop

* Soaking the seed is 2% potassium chloride or 3% NaCl for 6 hours followed by shade drying for 5 hours.
Adopt spacing of 45 x 15cm for all varieties except Co7 and for Co7, adopt 35 x 15 cm row
spacing. If pulse is intercropped, adopt spacing of 35 x 15cm for cumbu and 30 x 10cm for cowpea and other
pulses. * Seed rate 5kg/ha. Optimum population : 1,45,000 plants/ha.

Fertilizer management: If soil test recommendation is not available, follow the blanket recommendation.
Irrigated crop : Hybrids 80 : 40 :40 kg N : P2O5 : K2O/ha.
Varieties 70 : 35 : 35 kg N : P2O5 : K2O/ha.
Rainfed crop: 40 : 20 : 0 kg N : P2O5 : K2O/ha.
Apply 50% and 100% P and K as basal at 5cm depth and the remaining 50%N at 15 days after planting for
transplanted crop and 30 DAS for direct sown crop. Bajra removes about 90 kg N, 20 to 25 kg P2O5 and
160 kg K2O. Micronutrient: For Zn deficient soil, apply ZnSo4 at 25 kg/ha. Iron deficiency occurs in saline
and calcareous soil. Based on the level of deficiency, 12.5 to 25 kg of FeSo4 is recommended. If it is not
applied basally, foliar application of FeSo4 at 1% concentration at vegetative phase is recommended.

Water management : Highly drought tolerant crop. Water requirement : 300 to 350 mm. Irrigation at
available soil moisture of 50% Optimum IW/CPE ratio 0.4 is sufficient.
Critical Stages: Tillering and Flowering.
Normally 5 irrigations are recommended. Tillering, Panicle irrigation, Flag leaf, Flowering, Dough stage in
addition to sowing irrigation.
Under limited moisture condition : 3 irrigations can be recommended. Panicle initiation, Flag leaf,
Flowering in addition to sowing irrigation.
Thinning and gap filling : In the direct sown crop, after Ist weeding at the time of irrigation gap fill and thin the
crop to a spacing of 15cm between plants. In rainfed crop, thinning should be done 10 to15 days after sowing.
Weed Management : It reduces the yield by 50% crop weed competition is up to 35 days. Pre- emergence
application of atrazine 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) followed by hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after
transplanting or sowing. If the herbicide is not used, hand weed on 15th day and again between 30 and 35 days
after transplanting. For direct sown crop, hoeing and weeding may be done on 20 to 25th day and second
weeding on 35 th to 40th day after sowing.
*Atrazine should not be used for intercropping systems.
Cropping system: Some of the important crop rotations are
1. Bajra - Barly Intercropping system in North India
2. Bajra - Wheat Bajra + Groundnut
3. Bajra - Gram Bajra + Blackgram
4. Bajra - Pea Bajra + Greengram
5. Bajra - Potato Bajra + Castor
Bajra + Cowpea
Harvesting and Threshing:
When the leaves turned yellow colour and when the seeds
become hardened and having 20% moisture. Harvesting is done by removing the earheads first and cutting
down the plants latter on. The earheads after harvesting should be dried well in sun before threshing. The
grains are separated either by beating the earheads by sticks or by trampling by bullocks. The threshed
grain should be cleaned and dried in the sun to bring the moisture to12-14% for safe storage.

Yield
Grain Yield Stover Yield (t/ha)
Irrigated : 3.0 to 3.5 t 10.0 t/ha
Rainfed : 1.2 to 1.5 t 7-7.5 t/ha
 SMALL MILLETS (Minor Millets)
Importance of minor millets
➢ Minor millets are important staple food crops in semi arid tropics of Asia and Africa.
➢ India is the largest producer of many kinds of millets, which are often referred as coarse cereals.
➢ Nutritionally the grains are rich in Proteins, Minerals and Vitamins and comparable or even superior to major
cereals in certain nutritional parameters.

Nutrient composition of millets and cereals(per 100 g of grain

Food grain Protein CHO Fat Crude fibre Mineral Ca(mg) P Fe (mg)
(g) (g) (g) (g) matter (mg)
(g)
Millets
Finger millet 7.3 72.0 1.3 3.6 2.7 344 283 3.9
Kodo millet 8.3 65.0 1.4 9.0 2.6 27 188 12.0
Proso millet 12.5 70.4 3.1 7.2 1.9 14 206 10.0
Foxtail millet 12.3 60.9 4.3 8.0 3.3 31 290 5.0
Little millet 7.7 67.0 4.7 7.6 1.5 17 220 6.0
Barn yard millet 6.2 65.5 2.2 9.8 4.4 11 280 15.0
Brown top
Cereals
Wheat 11.8 71.2 1.5 1.2 1.5 41 306 5.3
Rice 6.8 78.2 0.5 0.2 0.6 45 160 -
Finger millet is the richest source of calcium (300-350 mg/100 gram grain) and other small millets are good
source of phosphorus and iron too. The protein content range from 7-12% and fat content varies from 1.3-4.7%.
The millet protein has well balanced amino acid profile and good source of Methionine, Cystine and lysine
• These essential amino acids are of special importance/benefit to those who depend on plant food for their
protein nourishment.
• Realizing the nutrient composition of these grains they are considered as nutri-cereals (Nutritious grains).
• Unlike other cereals, grains of small millets are practically devoid of store pests besides retaining viability
for long periods even under poor storage conditions. Hence they are referred as famine reserves.
• Fast growing character of minor millets made them enable to fix into intensive cropping system as a catch
crop, relay crop and sole crop with other slower maturing crop in a farming system.
• High seed multiplication ability made these minor millets to produce higher grain yields
• These millets requires less cooking time, this made farm women to devote her valuable time for other
works especially in intensive farming systems.
Unique traits of minor millets are-
1. Fast growing
2. High seed multiplicability
3. Less cooking time required
4. Processable for novel preparations
5. Varied adaptability
6. Nutritious
 7. Higher fodder value
8. High combining ability in different cropping system
9. High shelf life bearing
10. High yielding
FACTORS INFLUENCING LOW CONSUMPTION
• Lack of regular supply of small millets largely due to limited demand by urban population.
• Availability of other cereals such as wheat & rice at lower price than millets
• Higher social prestige associated with consumption of rice & wheat.
• Marketing channels are not well developed for small millets due to distance between remote producing
areas and major consuming centers.
• Most food aid projects include other cereals, more readily available in the market, rather than small millets.
• The ICAR in New Delhi established the following 6 crop specific lead centers with the help of the
International Development centre, Canada in 1978- 79 for the improvement of small millets.

The Six small millets are

1. Fox tail millet (कंगनी या कोनी kangani and koni): Setaria italica
2. Kodo millet (कोदो या कोदोन): Paspalum scrobiculatum
3. Proso millet (चेना या चीना): Panicum millaceum
4. Little millet (कुटकी): Panicum milliare
5. Barnyard millet (सांवा, श्यामाक, सावा, झंगोरा या सनवा): Echinochloa frumentacea

Lead centres for crop improvent for different millet cropos

For Ragi – Bangalore.
For Prosomillet at Dholi in Bihar
For Kodomillet at Dindori in Madhya Pradesh.
For Foxtail millet at Nandyal in Andhra Pradesh.
For Little millet at Semiliguda in Orissa.
For Barnyard millet at Almora in Uttar Pradesh.
 Finger Millet - Ragi (Eleusine coracona– Poaceae)
Finger millet is known as ragi/mandua/maduva in Hindi

✓ Ragi in Kannada and Ragulu in telugu

✓ Kelvragu in tamil
✓ Muttari in malayalam
Ragi belongs to the
• Tribe :Paniceae
• Family :Poaceae
• Genus :Eleusine
• The common name finger millet is derived from the finger like branching of the panicle
Economic Importance
• It is cultivated as human food in Africa and in Southern Asia
• Staple food crop in many hilly regions of the country,
• Eaten in the form of chapattis in Northern hills and Ragi balls, dosa, cakes or unleavened bread, porridge, sweets, biscuits
etc., in South India Grown both for grain and fodder.
• Green straw suitable for making silage.
• Germinating grains are malted and fed to infants and food for pregnant women.
• Used for fermented BEER in Africa
• The uniqueness in finger millet is the richest source of calcium (300-350 mg/100 g grain) where as wheat
and rice is having 41 mg/100 g and 45 mg/100 g respectively
• Finger millet contains 65-70% CHO, a high proportion of which is in the form of non starchy
polysaccharides
• Also rich in dietary fibre (3.6 g/100 g) as compared to wheat (1.2 g/100 g), and rice (0.2 g/100 g) which
helps
• Lowering of blood cholesterol and Slow release of glucose to the blood stream during digestion.
• The regular finger millet consumer is having low incidence of cardiovascular diseases, ulcers and
diabetes.
Origin: Ethiopian highlands
• Literature from ICRISTA as well as cytological evidences suggests- originated in Ethiopian
highlands
• India- 3000 years back, it is originated from Eleusine indica a grass that occurs in many parts of Northern
India.
Area and Distribution
• Ragi is widely cultivated in India, Africa, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Japan.
• In India, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Andrapradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Bihar, Jharkand etc.

Finger millet is cultivated in several districts of Bihar, including Darbhanga, Saharsa, Munger, and Gaya
 Botany: Tillering grass, flower appears in whorl at the top like
fingers referred as Ear head or spike. Each finger are called as
spikelet.
▪ Finger millet is a tufted annual plant, growing to a height of
30–150 cm and maturing in 75–160 days.
▪ Leaves are narrow, grass-like and capable of producing many
tillers and nodal branches.
▪ The panicle consists of a group of digitally arranged
spikes often referred to as fingers.
▪ The spikelets are made up of 4–10 florets arranged
serially onthe finger.
▪ It is self pollinated crop and hybridization has been a tool to
develop varieties. But, no commercial hybrid has been
developed due to lack of male sterile lines.
The grain is oblong to round and oval, reddish brown in colour.
recently
white coulour ragi KMR-340 variety has been released from UASB

Soil & Climate: It is a crop of tropical and sub-tropical [Link] in high altitudes upto 3000 m MSL, Requires
350-400 mm rainfall, can adopt to 1000 mm Ideal temperature is 25-30oC. Below 20 oC yield reduces, Sensitive to
frost The ideal length of photo period is of flowering is 11.50 hours
Can be grown in wide range of soil, sandy loam to clay loam soils are ideal. Crop can tolerates salinity (pH: 5.5 to
8.0) better than other cereals
Varieties: Prior to recombination breeding involving hybridization of African and Indian races, many local
varieties were cultivated. Most of them were low yielders but drought resistant. Some such varieties were Hansa,
Annapurna( Karnataka), Co7,Co8,K1,K2(TamilNadu), AKP1,AKP2 (A.P.). Some were protein rich (Co9/
Hansa).However, most of these varieties are replaced by blast resistant and drought resistant high yielding varieties
adaptable to varying climatic situations.
cultivated throughout the year because of the availability of varieties. Summer / early kharif ragi is referred as
Kar Ragi and Regular kharif is called Hain ragi. Important varieties are
Sowing time
Sl. Name of the
Duration (days)
No. cultivar Irrigated Rainfed

1 Indaf 8 120-125 June-July June-July

2 MR-1 120-125 June-July June-July
3 HR-911 115-120 July-Aug July
4 Indaf-5 105-110 Jan-Feb July-Aug
5 Indaf-7 115-120 Sept.-Oct
6 Indaf-15 120-125 Sept.-Oct
7 Indaf-9 95-105 April-May Aug-Oct
Aug-Sept
Feb-March
 8 KMR-301 115-118 Oct-Nov June -July
9 GPU – 28* 110-115 June-Aug July-Aug
10 PR – 202 115-120 - Aug
11 MR – 2 125-130 - June-July
12 MR-6 125-130 -
13 ML-365 All seasons
14 GPU 26 100-105 Jan-Feb April-Aug
15 GPU45* 95-100 All seasons
16 KMR-340 95-100 All seasons July- Aug

The Vakula variety (also known as PPR 2700) is a high-yielding, medium-duration finger
millet cultivar primarily released and recommended for cultivation in the Southern Zone of
Andhra Pradesh, India
Recommended Finger Millet Varieties in Bihar
The following varieties are prominent in Bihar, known for their adaptability to local
conditions and yield potential:
• Birsa Marua-2: This is one of the key varieties officially released and recommended for
cultivation in Bihar.
• BR-407: This variety is a popular choice among farmers in the state.
• RAU-8: This high-yielding variety has shown performance on par with other top varieties in
the sub-humid environment of South Bihar.
• GPU 67: This variety has demonstrated significantly higher grain yield and better heat use
efficiency in the region compared to many others. It is also recommended in other states and
suitable for rainfed conditions.
• PPR 2885: This high-yielding cultivar is recommended for cultivation in Bihar, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, and Gujarat, showing a significant yield advantage over national checks in
trials.
• VL 315: This variety is also well-adapted to the region and is noted for being tolerant to
finger and neck blast diseases.
• OEB-526 and OEB-532: These are additional varieties recommended for Bihar.

Inputs: Seeds – Rainfed (Direct sowing): 12.5 kg ha-1, Irrigated (Nursery-Transplanting): 5 kg ha-1.
FYM / Compost: 5 t ha-1 Bio-fertilizer: Azospirullum – 400 g (seed treatment)
NPK (kg ha-1): Rainfed - 50:40:25 Irrigated - 100:50:50.
.Finger millet responds well to manures and fertilizer application especially to N and P with judicious
application of FYM, inorganic fertilizer efficiency is enhanced. Entire P and K are applied at sowing where as N is
to be applied in 2 or 3 split doses depending on moisture availability.

Land preparation; Ragi requires a good seed bed with fine tilth of soil for better germination. Summer ploughing is
advantageous for moisture conservation. In the months of April or May, one deep ploughing with MB plough is
necessary. Before sowing secondary tillage with cultivator and multiple tooth hoe to prepare smooth bed is
necessary. Minor land smoothening before sowing helps in better in situ moisture conservation. Seeds are very
small and take 5-7 days to germinate. Hence, good seeds and land preparation helps in better germination,
minimizes weeds problems and effective soil moisture conservation.
Soil and moisture conservation practices:
Ragi is predominantly grown as a rainfed crop on rolling fields therefore it is essential to adopt soil and moisture
conservation practices to achieve stability in [Link] ploughing or ploughing after the harvest of previous
crop Ploughing across the slope Errection of small section bunds at an interval of 10- 12 m depending upon the
slope and leveling the depressions Opening of dead furrow at 3.3 to 4.0 m interval
Seed treatment: Before sowing, treat the seeds with ZnSO4 (prepare a paste of 25 grams of ZnSO4 with 10
spoonful of water in a container) treat 5 kg of seeds with that paste and keep overnight and sow on the next day.
Sowing: Broadcasting, Line sowing (Plough sole & Seed drill) at 30 X 10 cm, Transplanting 2-3 seedlings hill-1 at
22.5 cm X 10 cm spacing 30 X 10 cm is much ideal to perform various intercultural operations.

SYSTEMS OF CULTIVATION
• Finger millet can be cultivated in different systems, depending on convenience, season, rainfall
RAISING OF NURSERY IN RAGI (FOR 1 ha)
• 38 beds of 7.5 MX1.2M X10cm are required
• All beds should be prepared in well pulverized land by applying 15 Kg FYM/bed
• Apply 0.5 Kg Ammonium sulphate+1 Kg super phosphate+0.5 Kg Muriate of potash to each bed. Mix
them well.
• Broad cast 5 Kg seeds by equally distributing to all the plots. Irrigate regularly.
• Top dress after 12 days, with 250-500 g urea/plot
• Seedlings will be ready after 25 days
❖ Transplanted crop: 2-3 seedlings are transplanted after 20-25 days to the main field. It can be practiced
both under irrigation or rain fed conditions( in heavy rainfall tracts)
❖ Drill sown crop: Seeds are drilled along with fertilizers by seed cum fertilizer drills and later thinned
after emergence
❖ Plough sole method: Seeds are sown inside the furrow, created by a plough, by using drag tubes
attached to plough.
❖ Broadcasting: It is primitive method. The crop yields are Lesser due to competition and difficulty to
control weeds
Finger millet can be cultivated in different systems, depending on convenience, season, rainfall
Water management: Ragi is most efficient user of water. Drought tolerant crop, Its water use efficiency is higher
than most other cereals water requirement varies from 30-35 cm.
During kharif - it utilizes even scarce rainfall and efficiently converts into dry matter.
During rabi/summer -it may have to be irrigated using 30-40 cm water.
• Critical stages - Tillering & flowering

The "irrigation footprint" (specifically, the blue water footprint, which refers to the
consumption of surface and groundwater for irrigation) per kilogram of finger millet is
significantly lower than that of major water-intensive crops like rice and wheat.

Irrigation Footprint per kg of Grain

 Based on data from organizations like the International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and WaterAid, the approximate irrigation water needed to
produce one kilogram of various crops is as follows:
• Finger Millet (and other millets): ~79 liters/kg
• Rice: ~596 to over 2,800 liters/kg, depending heavily on the specific irrigation system
• Wheat: ~729 to over 1,600 liters/kg
• Maize: Requires more water than millets (around 1,028 to 1,292 liters/kg globally, though
specific irrigation footprint is variable)

Weed management:
Critical stage to control weeds is up to 35 days after sowing /planting. Cultural control by 2-3 inter
cultivations is necessary to be supplemented with one hand weeding.
Pre-Emergence (PE) Herbicides
These herbicides are applied before weeds emerge, typically 2 to 8 days after sowing (DAS) or
transplanting (DAT) onto a moist soil surface.
✓ Pyrazosulfuron ethyl (15-20 g a.i./ha): This herbicide has been found to be very effective at
significantly reducing total weed density and dry weight, leading to higher grain yields in
transplanted finger millet. It is particularly effective against broadleaf weeds.

✓ Pendimethalin (750 g a.i./ha): A widely used option that provides good control of a wide
spectrum of weeds and is often recommended as a pre-emergent spray.

✓ Pretilachlor (500 g a.i./ha): Effective for suppressing a wide range of weeds, including
grasses, sedges, and broadleaf weeds.

✓ Oxyfluorfen (37.5 - 80 g a.i./ha): This is effective when applied as a PE herbicide, often in

combination with hand weeding for better results.
Post-Emergence (POE) Herbicides
These are applied after the weeds have emerged, usually around 10 to 25 DAS/DAT,
depending on the weed's growth stage.
• Bispyribac sodium (20-25 g a.i./ha): This is effective for managing weeds that emerge later
and provides good control when applied at the critical period of crop-weed competition (25 to
60 DAS).
• Penoxsulam (20 g a.i./ha): This is effective against a wide range of weeds including grasses,
sedges, and broadleaf weeds.
• 2,4-D Na salt (0.5 - 0.75 kg a.i./ha): A common post-emergence option that is particularly
effective against broadleaf weeds in both direct-sown and transplanted crops.
• Ethoxysulfuron (12 g a.i./ha): This has been found to be effective and economical in
controlling weeds in ragi as an alternative to manual weeding.
Integrated Weed Management (IWM)
For the most effective and economical weed control, an integrated approach combining
herbicides with cultural/mechanical methods is often recommended in Bihar and other regions.
 • Control of weeds in nursery is also to be done in similar way to get healthy seedlings
Cropping system: Intercropped with legumes such as Redgram, field beans, cowpea etc, and Sequenced
with potato, groundnut, cotton, tobacco, chick pea, mustard, sesame etc.
PESTS AND DISEASES
• Blast: It is a major disease affecting leaves[ called leaf blast], peduncle[ called neck blast] or ear head.
Seed treatment with Thiram of Ceresan (@2.5g/Kg ) or use of blast resistant variety or avoiding late
sowing can control the disease.
• Seedling blight: When crop is exposed to continuous rainfall at early stage, whitish/ ash colored patches
develop on leaves/ stem and reduce the growth and yield of the crop. Seed treatment with Thiram of
Ceresan (@2.5g/Kg ) or spray with 0.2% Zineb is useful to control the disease.
• Downy mildew: It can be controlled by spray of 0.2% Mancozeb
• Stem borer: it can be controlled by using Diazinon granules (@ 20 Kg/[Link] Chloropyriphos 20 EC @2
ml/lt water
• Bihar hairy caterpillar & grass hoppers: They can be controlled by dusting 2% Methyl
parathion ( @ 25-30 Kg/ha).
• Ear head caterpillar:It can be controlled by dusting Carbaryl ( @20Kg/ha).
• Aphids: They can be controlled by spraying Phosphomidon (@2.5 ml/L). Or Dimithoate 30EC @ 1.7
ml/lt of water.
Harvesting:
Crop matures in duration ranging from 100 days to 140 days, depending on variety. Harvest when the ear heads
turn brown & plant dries. Harvesting is done by cutting ear heads, drying them for 3-4 days under sun and
threshing later to separate grains using stonerollers/ by Thresher The dried stalk will be cut later and used as cattle
feed. The grains should not have moisture more than 12% for long unaffected storage.
Yield: Irrigated: 30-40 q grain + 9-10 t fodder ha-1.
Rainfed: 15-20 q grain + 3-4 t fodder ha-1.
Non cash inputs: Intercultivation operation has to be carried out during dry spell, The optimum time of sowing is
2nd fort night of June ,Incorporate FYM or compost 2-3 weeks before sowing of the crop.
What is the Guli Method (SFMI / Guni Method)
 • The Guli method (also called Guni method or System of Finger Millet Intensification – SFMI) is a modern,
systematic method of cultivating finger millet that increases yield while using less seed, water, and inputs.
• It is inspired by System of Rice Intensification (SRI) principles: planting seedlings singly in well-prepared soil
with wider spacing, improving soil aeration, and applying organic fertilizers.
• Originally developed by farmers in southern India (e.g., Karnataka) and later standardized scientifically.
• The method emphasizes: strong root growth, more tillers, less lodging, and higher nutrient uptake, resulting
in higher yields and better resource use efficiency.

📋 Key Features and Steps of the Guli Method

Step / Aspect Details / Guidelines
Seed requirement is very low: ~1 kg/acre instead of 5–6 kg/acre (broadcast method).
Seed and Nursery
Grow seedlings in nursery for 20–25 days before transplanting.
Prepare soil well by plowing / tilling. Apply FYM or compost.
Land Preparation
Make small pits (“guli”) in a square-grid pattern.
Transplant 2 seedlings per pit in a square grid, usually 45 cm × 45 cm spacing.
Transplanting
Add a small amount of compost / manure into each pit for nutrient support.
Maintain soil moist, not flooded. Alternate wetting and drying is sufficient. Less water needed
Water Management
compared to conventional method.
Prefer organic fertilizers: FYM, compost, or biofertilizers. Chemical fertilizers can be reduced or
Fertilizer / Nutrition
avoided.
Weeding / Soil Use hand or simple mechanical tools to aerate soil and control weeds. Inter-cultivation
Aeration promotes root growth and tillering.
Traditional broadcast method: ~1.2–2 t/ha.
Yield
Guli method: 4–5 t/ha common, sometimes up to 6.25 t/ha.

👍 Advantages of the Guli Method

• Lower seed requirement (~1 kg/acre).

• Water-saving: suitable for rainfed or water-limited areas.
• Higher yield: 2–4 times more than traditional broadcasting.
• Lower input cost: minimal chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
• Better soil health: strong roots, aerated soil, improved nutrient cycling.
• Resilient crop: better performance under drought, erratic rainfall, or marginal conditions.

Limitations / Challenges

• Requires nursery and transplanting, more labor initially.

• Soil must be well-prepared and fertile; insufficient organic manure may reduce yields.
• Inter-cultivation and weeding must be done carefully to prevent competition from weeds.
• Adaptation needed for local soil, rainfall, and climatic conditions.

🌱 Recommendations for Bihar / Kishanganj Region

1. Start on a small trial plot (0.1–0.5 ha) to check local adaptability.

2. Prepare nursery and 20–25 day seedlings before transplanting.
3. Follow square-grid spacing (≈45 × 45 cm), 2 seedlings per pit.
4. Use organic fertilizers (FYM, compost, biofertilizer).
5. Maintain soil moisture without flooding; alternate wetting and drying.
6. Perform regular inter-cultivation or soil aeration.
7. Monitor growth and tiller numbers for performance evaluation.

Guni method of finger millet establishment

FOXTAIL MILLET/ ITALIAN MILLET Setaria italica
Common names: Kangni ,Navane,Tenai,Korra ,Rala ,Kakum
Economic importance
▪ Generally grown as rainfed crop
▪ Grains cooked like rice and utilized
▪ Grain flour used in the form of chapaties
▪ Grain contains 12.3% protein, 4.7% fat, 60.6% carbohydrates and 3.2% ash Grains are fed to cage birds
▪ Straw is thin stemmed and is liked by cattle (not good for horses)
▪ In China it is important next to rice and wheat and provides approximately 15-17% of the total food
consumed in China.
Navane grain contains
❖ 12.3% Protein, 60.9 g CHO, 4.3% Fat, 8% Crude fibre, 3.3% Mineral matter
❖ 31 mg Calcium, 290 mg Phosphorus and 5 mg Iron per 100 g grain
Origin: China
Area and Distribution
India, China, Eastern Europe, Southern parts of USSR and some extent in African and American countries,
In India cultivated in Karnataka, AP, MP and UP
As evidenced by the earliest cultivation of this grain from the Peiligang culture of China From China it spreads
to India and other European countries
Soil and Climatic requirements
It can grow in poor soils but requires fairly fertile soils for good yields. Light soils including red loams, alluvial
and black cotton soil are all suitable for its cultivation but it thrives best on rich, well drained loam soils. Cultivated
in tropical and temperate regions up to 2000 m altitude Requires moderate temperature and grows successfully
with 50-75 cm rainfall Although water requirement is less has no capacity to recover after long spell of
drought.
Coarsest food grains covered with horny seed coat which should be removed before cooking and highly drought
resistant crop Immature and molded grains are poisonous Easily preserved and proves as good famine reserve
Recommended as a substitute for rice to patients suffering from diabetes Grain contains 8.3% protein, 1.4% fat,
65.6% carbohydrates and 2.9% ash
Varieties:
Varieties Sowing time Duration
RS-118 June – July 100 days
HMT-100-1 June – July 90 days
K-221-1 June – August 100 days
SIA-2644 June – July 90 days
DHFT-100-3 June – July 90 days
P.S – 4 June – August 80-85
S.I.A – 326 May – August 85-90
Seeds and sowing: Seeds: 7.5 to 10 kg/ha, Spacing: 22.5 to 30 cm x 10 cm, Depth of sowing: 2-3 cm
Field preparation: Before the onset of monsoon, the field should be ploughed with MB plough. After the onset,
field should be harrowed. Planking- for making smooth field and well levelled.

Manures and Fertilizer application:

✓ FYM: 6 t/ha, Azospirillum: 500 g ,RDF: 40:20:20 NPK kg/ha
Apply 50% of N and entire P and K as basal {at the time of sowing}, 50% of N as top dressing {at 30 DAS}.
Water management:
✓ Foxtail millet grown in kharif season does not require irrigation.
✓ If dry spell for longer period, provide irrigation.
✓ Summer crop requires 2-5 irrigations.
❖ Critical stages of crop for moisture stress : After germination, [Link]
Grain filling stages.
Weed management: 2-3 intercultivations and one hand weeding
Harvesting
Crop flowers in 50-60 days,Matures in 80-100 days. Harvest the crop when ear heads are dry either by cutting
the whole plant by sickle or the ears separately, Dry for few days.
Threshing :It is done with a stone roller or By trampling under the feet of bullocks

Yield: Grains- 18-20 q /ha, Straw: 40-45 q/ha

Cropping systems:
Foxtail millet + Redgram (4:2)
Foxtail millet + Sesamum (4:2)
Foxtail millet + Greengram (4:2)
Non cash inputs:Sowing should be completed within last week of June, Do not sow the crop > 3 cm
depth.

1. PROSO MILLET/ COMMON MILLET (Panivaragu, Cheena,) Panicum miliaceum

Colloquial names
Cheena, Panivarages, Variga, Broom arm millet Hog millet, Harshey millet, common millet. It is one of the
oldest crops.
Unique features:
▪ Better prospectus for intensive cultivation in dry land areas because
▪ Early maturing (65-70 days), High drought tolerance
▪ Short duration crop, Relatively low water requirement
▪ Escapes drought period
• Grown during kharif season but under irrigated conditions as summer crop as catch crop
Importance
• Evade drought by its quick maturity
• Offers better prospects for intensive cultivation in dry land areas
Baragu contains (per 100 gram of grain)
▪ 12.5 g protein, 70.4 g CHO, 3.1 g fat, 7.2 g crude fibre, 1.9 g mineral matter, 14 mg Ca, 206 mg P
and 10 mg Fe
▪ Grains of baragu is used as cooked grain, Flour for making chapattis, parched grains etc.,.
✓ Also for preparation of kheer
✓ Used as poultry feed
✓ Straw is good for cattle feed.
Origin: India
Area and Distribution
Grown extensively in India, Japan, China, Egypt, Arabia and Western Europe India
largely grown in MP, Eastern UP, Bihar, TN, Maharastra, AP and Karnataka Soil and
Climate requirement
Well drained loam or sandy loam free of kankar and rich in organic matter ideal Can be grown both in rich and
poor soils having variable texture ranging between sandy loam to clays of black cotton soils Warm climate crop
grown extensively in warm regions of the world Highly drought resistant and can be grown in areas where there is
scanty rainfall and withstand water stagnation also to some extent.
Varieties:
Sowin Duratio Yield(q/acre)
Crop Variety
g n Grain Straw
time (Days)

Proso G.P.U.P - 21 May - July 65-75 4.8-6 1.8-2

millet G.P.U.P - 8 85-90 8-8.8 2-2.4
Land preparation:
✓ Baragu requires a firm and fine seed bed but does not respond to deep ploughing
✓ 1 ploughing +1 harrowing and planking makes the fine seed bed.
Seeds and sowing:
• Seed rate :12.5 kg/ha
• Spacing : 22.5 to 30 cm x 10 cm
• Depth of sowing: 4 cm
Line sowing is advantageous
 It facilitated better germination, Cuts down seed requirement and Helps for easy intercultural operations and weed
management.
Manures and fertilizers:
➢ FYM :5 t/ha
➢ NPK:20:20:0 kg/ha
➢ Apply 50% ‘N’ and entire ‘P’ at sowing and 50% N at 30 DAS
Water management:
• Kharif season crop does not require irrigation. Provide irrigation at tillering, if long dry spells.
• Summer crop requires 2-4 irrigations depending on soil type and climatic conditions.
✓ 1st irrigation at 25-30 DAS and 2nd at 40-45 DAS. Heavy irrigation not advisable because of shallow
root system.
Weed control: Intercultivation 3 WAS at an interval of 15 days is better. Which serves asWeed control and
Moisture conservation.
Cropping systems Intercropping
systems
• Proso millet +Redgram
• Proso millet +Cowpea
• Proso millet +Greengram
• Proso millet +Black gram
Harvesting and threshing:
• Ready for harvest after 65 to 70 DAS.
• Harvest the crop when it is about to mature.
• The seeds in the tip of upper heads ripe and shatter before the lower seeds and later panicles get
mature.
• Therefore crop should be harvested when 2/3 of seeds ripe.
• Crop is threshed with hand/bullocks
Yield: Grain : 20-22 q/ha, Straw: 4-4.5 t/ha

2. LITTLE MILLET: Panicum sumatrense (Save)

 Economic importance
• Save is grown both as sole and intercrop from early period itself.
• Because of lower consumption as food and lower yield, the area under this crop is less.
• It is also serves as best food for patients suffering from diabetes
SAVE GRAINS CONTAINS: 7.7 g protein, 67 g CHO, 4.7 g fat, 7.6 g crude fibre, 1.5 g mineral matter, 17 mg
calcium, 220 mg phosphorus and 6 mg iron
The crop is strongly associated with tribal agriculture and grown as an important catch crop Area
and Distribution
TN,KA, AP, MH, Jharkhand, MP, Orissa and Gujarat.
In Karnataka- Area : 0.8 to 1.0 lakh ha in North Karnataka
Soil and climatic requirements :Can be grown in gravelly, hilly slopy land with poor fertility
[Link] for low rainfall areas. Grown on wide range of soils
Varieties:

Duratio Yield(q/acre)
Crop Variety Sowing time
n
Grain Straw
(Days)
C.O - 2 90-100
May - July 5-6 0.5-1
O.L.M-203 100-105
Little millet Sukhshema
TNAU-63 May - July 85-90
TNAU-83
• Seed rate: 12.5 kg/ha ,Spacing: 22.5 -30 cm x 10 cm,Sowing depth: 2-3 cm
• Sowing time: May – July
Land preparation: Similar to other millets
Manures and fertilizer application :FYM: 6 t/ha, NPK:20:20:0NPK kg/ha
50% N and entire P at sowing and 50% at 30 DAS.
Water management: Grown as rainfed crop no irrigation is required
Weed control: Two intercultivations and 1 HW in line sown crop , Two hand weeding in broadcasting is necessary
Cropping system
• Save + Blackgram (2:1),
• Save + Sesame (2:1),
• Save + Soybean (2:1),
• Save + Pigeonpea (2:1).
In Karnataka:Save + cowpea and save + Greengram is followed. Save-Niger sequence in south Bihar
Yield: Grain: 12-15 q/ha and Straw:12-15 t/ha
Higher yield can be obtained
• If sowing is completed within first week of June.
• Do not sow the crop > 3 cm depth

3. BARNYARD MILLET (Echinochloa frumentacea)

Colloquial names are – Oodalu, Modira, Sawa/sawan, Kudraivali Economic
Importance
Very drought resistant & also capable of withstanding water logging condition, Grains consumed just like rice ,
Used in making rice pudding
Grain contains 6.2% protein, 9.8% crude fibre, 65.5% carbohydrates, 4.4% ash Mostly
eaten by poor class people, Sometime brewed for beer
Used as feed for cage birds & straw makes good fodder for cattle
Origin: India
Area and Distribution
Grown in India, China, Japan, Malaysia and east Indies and some extent in Africa and USA In India
grown in MP, UP, TN, AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Bihar
Soil and climate requirement
Can be grown in soils of marginal fertility and partially waterlogged condition.
Thrives best on sandy loam to loam soil, Grown from sea level to 2000 m on the Himalaya slopes, Warm and
moderately humid climate is good.
Seed rate: 10-12.5 kg/ha, Spacing: 22.5 to 30 cm x 5-10 cm, Sowing depth: 4 cm
Varieties: Sushruta: June – July (85 days), VL 29, VL 172 and VL 181
Land preparation:Grown on light and marginal soil. Similar to other millet crops.
Manure and fertilizers :FYM: 5 t/ha , 20:20:0 NPK kg/ha.
Water management:Kharif season crop does not require irrigation. If dry spells for a long period give 1
irrigation at panicle initiation [Link] optimum drainage condition to remove excess water.
Weed control:Practice intercultivation 2-3 times at 3 WAS at weekly interval. It helps in insitu moisture
conservation and effective weed control. Hand weeding within one month.
Cropping system
✓ Barnyard millet + Redgram (4:1)
✓ Barnyard millet + Black gram (4:1)
✓ Barnyard millet + Green gram (4:1)
✓ Barnyard millet + Cowpea (4:1)
✓ Green fodder purpose
▪ Harvest the crop at flowering and milking stage for green fodder purpose
▪ Harvest the ratoon crop for grain and fodder purpose to obtain higher profit.
Harvesting and threshing
• Harvest when the crop is [Link] is cut from the ground level with the help of sickle.
• Stacked in the field for a week before threshing. Threshing by trampling under the feet of bullocks.
Yield:Grain:18-20 q/ha and Straw: 4-5 t/ha
Non cash inputs
• Incorporate FYM 2-3 weeks before sowing of the crop
• Do not sow the crop > 3 cm depth.

KODO MILLET: Paspalum scrobiculatum

The common names are
Kadra- in Hindi,kodo, varahu- Tamil,haraka – in Kannada,arikalu- in Telagu Called
as cow grass or ditch millet in western countries
Can withstand long storage-famine reserve
Economic Importance
• Coarsest food grains covered with horny seed coat which should be removed before cooking
• Highly drought resistant crop
• Immature and molded grains are poisonous
• Easily preserved and proves as good famine reserve.
• Recommended as a substitute for rice to patients suffering from diabetes
• The grain as well as Green/dry fodder are used as cattle feed in USA
• Rich in Calcium,Grain contains, 8.3% Protein ,1.4% Fat,65.6% Carbohydrates and 2.9% Ash
Origin: Western Africa
✓ Domesticated in India-3000 yrs.
✓ Distribution: India , Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and Western Africa
✓ Kodo millet is wide spread and grown in many states in South, west, central and North India.
✓ It is grown over an area of 0.7 m ha in AP, MP, Chattisgarh, MH, UP, GJ and TN.
✓ Its cultivation is mostly confined to tribal areas grown under poor environment.
✓ In KA, kodo millet is mainly grown in southern districts as a rainfed crop.
✓ It is mainly grown in Kolar, Tumkur, Mandya, Mysore and Chitradurga districts.
In Karnataka, Kodo millet is grown
Area : 0.01 lakh ha ,Production : 227 tonnes ,Average productivity : 455 kg/ha.
Soil and climatic requirement
✓ It is grown on gravelly and stony upland poor soils to loam soils.
✓ Well drained soils are suitable.
✓ Grown in warm and dry climate.
✓ Highly drought tolerant therefore grown in scanty erratic rainfall.
Varieties: PSC – 1, JNK-365 , GPUK-3, RBK-155 , JK-439
Season: June 15th to July 15th
Seed rate:Line sowing: 10-12 kg/ha , Broadcasting:15 kg/ha
Spacing: 30 x 10 cm
Depth of sowing: 3.5 to 4.0 cm, The seed will germinate at 10-12 DAS.
Care should be taken that there should be optimum moisture at the time of sowing.
Manures and Fertilizer management
• FYM/compost: 6 t/ha., Fertilizers: 20:20:0 NPK kg/ha.
• Apply 50% N and entire P at the time of sowing remaining 50% at 30 DAS.

Water management
✓ Haraka is grown in kharif season does not require irrigation.
✓ If dry spell for longer period, provide irrigation.
✓ Weed control: Hand weeding twice around 20 and 35 DAS.
✓ 2-3 intercultivations are necessary.
 ✓ In assured rainfall areas
✓ Pre emergence application of Isoproturon @ 0.5 kg a.i/ha is effective.
Cropping system:Intercropping
▪ Kodomillet + Pigeonpea (2:1)
▪ Kodo millet + Green gram (2:1)
▪ Kodo millet + Black gram (2:1)
▪ Kodo millet + Soybean (2:1)
Crop rotation:
Kodo millet – Soybean – Kodo millet Kodo
millet – Niger – Kodo millet Cultivation
details of small millets
Yield: 40-45 q/ha Grains, 6-8 t/ha Stover
Non cash inputs
• Line sowing is best method of sowing
• Sowing should be carried out when there is optimum soil moisture
• Sow the seeds at 30 x 10 cm spacing
Particulars Italian Kodo millet Common Millet Littlemillet Barnyard
millet Millet
Season and June-July K1, CO3, PV196&162,K1, CO2, CO3 IP149, VL1
varieties CO5,K3, APK1, CO2, CO3, CO4 K1, CO3 CO1, K1,
(Rainfed) CO6 Niwas1, Pali and K2 UPT8,
Sep-Oct IP149
CO4, CO5,
CO6,
K2
Seeds rate Line planting:10kg/ha and
broadcasting:12.5kg/ha
Seed drill Line planting:
FYM 7.5 t/ha (Basal)
Nitrogen Nitrogen 44 kg/ha(Basal)
Phosphorus Phosphorus 22 /ha(Basal)
Spacing 22x10 cm 45x10cm 25x10 cm 25x10 cm 25x10 cm
Weeding 15th DAS – First
40th DAS - Second
Thinning 20 DAS
Harvesting Whole plant or earhead is sickled, staked and dried and threshed with stone
roller or trampling under feet of bullocks
Yield kg/ha 1200-1800 1500-1800 1200-1500 700-1300 1250-1750