Chapter 5

Network Layer:
Control Plane
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Computer Networking: A
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Top-Down Approach
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Network layer control plane: our goals
▪understand principles ▪ instantiation, implementation
behind network control in the Internet:
plane: • OSPF, BGP
• traditional routing algorithms • OpenFlow, ODL and ONOS
• SDN controllers controllers
• network management, • Internet Control Message
configuration Protocol: ICMP
• SNMP, YANG/NETCONF

Network Layer: 5-2

 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP
▪ network management,
▪ SDN control plane configuration
▪ Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-3

Network-layer functions
▪ forwarding: move packets from router’s
input to appropriate router output
data plane
▪ routing: determine route taken by
packets from source to destination control plane

Two approaches to structuring network control plane:

▪ per-router control (traditional)
▪ logically centralized control (software defined networking)

Network Layer: 5-4

Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact in the control plane

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-5

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) control plane
Remote controller computes, installs forwarding tables in routers

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA
values in arriving
packet header

0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 5-6

Per-router
SDN control plane
control plane
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP ▪ network management,
▪ SDN control plane configuration
▪ Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-8

Routing protocols mobile network
national or global ISP
Routing protocol goal: determine
“good” paths (equivalently, routes),
from sending hosts to receiving host, application
transport

through network of routers network

link
physical

▪ path: sequence of routers packets network

link
physical
network
link
physical

traverse from given initial source host

to final destination host network
link
physical
network
link
physical

▪ “good”: least “cost”, “fastest”, “least

network
link datacenter
physical network

congested”
▪ routing: a “top-10” networking
application
transport
network

challenge! enterprise
network
link
physical

Network Layer: 5-9

Graph abstraction: link costs
5
ca,b: cost of direct link connecting a and b
3 e.g., cw,z = 5, cu,z = ∞
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3 cost defined by network operator:
1 2
x 1
y could always be 1, or inversely related
to bandwidth, or inversely related to
congestion
graph: G = (N,E)
N: set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }
E: set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Network Layer: 5-10

 Routing algorithm classification
global: all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
• “link state” algorithms
How fast
dynamic: routes change
do routes static: routes change more quickly
change? slowly over time • periodic updates or in
response to link cost
changes
decentralized: iterative process of
computation, exchange of info with neighbors
• routers initially only know link costs to
attached neighbors
• “distance vector” algorithms
global or decentralized information? Network Layer: 5-11
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP ▪ network management,
▪ SDN control plane configuration
▪ Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-12

Dijkstra’s link-state routing algorithm
▪ centralized: network topology, link notation
costs known to all nodes
• accomplished via “link state
▪ cx,y: direct link cost from
node x to y; = ∞ if not direct
broadcast” neighbors
• all nodes have same info
▪ D(v): current estimate of cost
▪ computes least cost paths from one of least-cost-path from source
node (“source”) to all other nodes to destination v
• gives forwarding table for that node ▪ p(v): predecessor node along
path from source to v
▪ iterative: after k iterations, know
▪ N': set of nodes whose least-
least cost path to k destinations cost-path definitively known

Network Layer: 5-13

 Dijkstra’s algorithm: an example
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

resulting least-cost-path tree from u: resulting forwarding table in u:

destination outgoing link
v w
v (u,v) route from u to v directly
u z x (u,x)
y (u,x) route from u to all
x y w (u,x) other destinations
x (u,x) via x
Network Layer: 5-27
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ link state
▪ distance vector
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP ▪ network management,
▪ SDN control plane configuration
▪ Internet Control Message • SNMP
Protocol • NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-31

Distance vector algorithm
Based on Bellman-Ford (BF) equation (dynamic programming):
Bellman-Ford equation

Let Dx(y): cost of least-cost path from x to y.

Then:
Dx(y) = minv { cx,v + Dv(y) }

v’s estimated least-cost-path cost to y

min taken over all neighbors v of x direct cost of link from x to v
Network Layer: 5-32
Bellman-Ford Example
Suppose that u’s neighboring nodes, x,v,w, know that for destination z:
Dv(z) = 5 Dw(z) = 3 Bellman-Ford equation says:
5
Du(z) = min { cu,v + Dv(z),
3 w
v 5 cu,x + Dx(z),
2
u 2 1 z cu,w + Dw(z) }
3
1 2
= min {2 + 5,
x 1
y 1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Dx(z) = 3
node achieving minimum (x) is
next hop on estimated least-
cost path to destination (z)
Network Layer: 5-33
Distance vector algorithm
key idea:
▪ from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate
to neighbors
▪ when x receives new DV estimate from any neighbor, it updates its
own DV using B-F equation:
Dx(y) ← minv{cx,v + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

▪ under minor, natural conditions, the estimate Dx(y) converge to the

actual least cost dx(y)

Network Layer: 5-34

Distance vector algorithm:
each node: iterative, asynchronous: each local
iteration caused by:
wait for (change in local link ▪ local link cost change
cost or msg from neighbor) ▪ DV update message from neighbor

recompute DV estimates using distributed, self-stopping: each

node notifies neighbors only when
DV received from neighbor its DV changes
▪ neighbors then notify their
if DV to any destination has neighbors – only if necessary
changed, notify neighbors ▪ no notification received, no
actions taken!

Network Layer: 5-35

Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
message complexity robustness: what happens if router
LS: n routers, O(n2) messages sent malfunctions, or is compromised?
DV: exchange between neighbors; LS:
convergence time varies • router can advertise incorrect link cost
• each router computes only its own
speed of convergence table
LS: O(n2) algorithm, O(n2) messages DV:
• may have oscillations
• DV router can advertise incorrect path
DV: convergence time varies cost (“I have a really low-cost path to
• may have routing loops everywhere”): black-holing
• count-to-infinity problem
• each router’s DV is used by others:
error propagate thru network
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP
▪ SDN control plane
▪ Internet Control Message ▪ network management,
Protocol configuration
• SNMP
• NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-53

Making routing scalable
our routing study thus far - idealized
▪ all routers identical
▪ network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: billions of destinations: administrative autonomy:
▪ can’t store all destinations in ▪ Internet: a network of networks
routing tables! ▪ each network admin may want to
▪ routing table exchange would control routing in its own network
swamp links!

Network Layer: 5-54

Internet approach to scalable routing
aggregate routers into regions known as “autonomous
systems” (AS) (a.k.a. “domains”)

intra-AS (aka “intra-domain”): inter-AS (aka “inter-domain”):

routing among routers within same routing among AS’es
AS (“network”) ▪ gateways perform inter-domain
▪ all routers in AS must run same intra- routing (as well as intra-domain
domain protocol routing)
▪ routers in different AS can run different
intra-domain routing protocols
▪ gateway router: at “edge” of its own AS,
has link(s) to router(s) in other AS’es
Network Layer: 5-55
Interconnected ASes
forwarding table configured by intra-
and inter-AS routing algorithms
Intra-AS Inter-AS
Routing Routing ▪ intra-AS routing determine entries for
forwarding destinations within AS
table
▪ inter-AS & intra-AS determine entries
for external destinations

intra-AS
3c
routing3a inter-AS routing 2c
intra-AS
3b 2a routing
2b
1c
intra-AS
AS3
1a routing 1b AS2
1d
AS1

Network Layer: 5-56

 Inter-AS routing: a role in intradomain forwarding
▪ suppose router in AS1 receives AS1 inter-domain routing must:
datagram destined outside of AS1: 1. learn which destinations reachable
• router should forward packet to through AS2, which through AS3
gateway router in AS1, but which 2. propagate this reachability info to all
one? routers in AS1

3c other
3a 2c
3b 2a networks
2b
1c
AS3
other 1a 1b AS2
networks
1d
AS1

Network Layer: 5-57

Intra-AS routing: routing within an AS
most common intra-AS routing protocols:
▪ RIP: Routing Information Protocol [RFC 1723]
• classic DV: DVs exchanged every 30 secs
• no longer widely used
▪ EIGRP: Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
• DV based
• formerly Cisco-proprietary for decades (became open in 2013 [RFC 7868])
▪ OSPF: Open Shortest Path First [RFC 2328]
• link-state routing
• IS-IS protocol (ISO standard, not RFC standard) essentially same as OSPF

Network Layer: 5-58

OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) routing
▪ “open”: publicly available
▪ classic link-state
• each router floods OSPF link-state advertisements (directly over IP
rather than using TCP/UDP) to all other routers in entire AS
• multiple link costs metrics possible: bandwidth, delay
• each router has full topology, uses Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute
forwarding table
▪ security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to prevent malicious
intrusion)

Network Layer: 5-59

 Hierarchical OSPF
▪ two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
• link-state advertisements flooded only in area, or backbone
• each node has detailed area topology; only knows direction to reach
other destinations
area border routers: boundary router:
“summarize” distances to connects to other ASes
backbone
destinations in own area, backbone router:
advertise in backbone runs OSPF limited
to backbone
local routers:
• flood LS in area only area 3
• compute routing within
area
internal
• forward packets to outside routers
area 1
via area border router
area 2 Network Layer: 5-60
 Network layer: “control plane” roadmap
▪ introduction
▪ routing protocols
▪ intra-ISP routing: OSPF
▪ routing among ISPs: BGP
▪ SDN control plane
▪ Internet Control Message ▪ network management,
Protocol configuration
• SNMP
• NETCONF/YANG

Network Layer: 5-61

Interconnected ASes

intra-AS
3c
routing3a inter-AS routing 2c
intra-AS
3b 2a routing
2b
1c
intra-AS
AS3
1a routing 1b AS2
1d
AS1

intra-AS (aka “intra-domain”): routing among routers within same

AS (“network”)
inter-AS (aka “inter-domain”): routing among AS’es
Network Layer Control Plane: 5-62
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
▪ BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto inter-domain routing
protocol
• “glue that holds the Internet together”
▪ allows subnet to advertise its existence, and the destinations it can
reach, to rest of Internet: “I am here, here is who I can reach, and how”
▪ BGP provides each AS a means to:
• obtain destination network reachability info from neighboring ASes
(eBGP)
• determine routes to other networks based on reachability information
and policy
• propagate reachability information to all AS-internal routers (iBGP)
• advertise (to neighboring networks) destination reachability info
Network Layer Control Plane: 5-63
eBGP, iBGP connections
2b

2a 2c
∂
1b 3b
2d
1a 1c ∂
3a 3c
AS 2
1d 3d

AS 1 eBGP connectivity AS 3
logical iBGP connectivity

1c gateway routers run both eBGP and iBGP protocols

Network Layer: 5-64

BGP basics
▪ BGP session: two BGP routers (“peers”) exchange BGP messages over
semi-permanent TCP connection:
• advertising paths to different destination network prefixes (BGP is a “path
vector” protocol)
▪ when AS3 gateway 3a advertises path AS3,X to AS2 gateway 2c:
• AS3 promises to AS2 it will forward datagrams towards X
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d
2b
1d BGP advertisement:
2a 2c X
AS3, X
2d
Network Layer: 5-65
BGP protocol messages
▪ BGP messages exchanged between peers over TCP connection
▪ BGP messages [RFC 4371]:
• OPEN: opens TCP connection to remote BGP peer and authenticates
sending BGP peer
• UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
• KEEPALIVE: keeps connection alive in absence of UPDATES; also ACKs
OPEN request
• NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg; also used to close
connection
Path attributes and BGP routes
▪ BGP advertised route: prefix + attributes
• prefix: destination being advertised
• two important attributes:
• AS-PATH: list of ASes through which prefix advertisement has passed
• NEXT-HOP: indicates specific internal-AS router to next-hop AS
▪ policy-based routing:
• gateway receiving route advertisement uses import policy to
accept/decline path (e.g., never route through AS Y).
• AS policy also determines whether to advertise path to other other
neighboring ASes

Network Layer: 5-67

BGP path advertisement
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b
1d AS3, X
AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

▪ AS2 router 2c receives path advertisement AS3,X (via eBGP) from AS3 router 3a
▪ based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2c accepts path AS3,X, propagates (via iBGP) to all
AS2 routers
▪ based on AS2 policy, AS2 router 2a advertises (via eBGP) path AS2, AS3, X to
AS1 router 1c
Network Layer: 5-68
BGP path advertisement: multiple paths
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b AS3,X 3a 3c
AS3,X
AS3,X
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b
AS3,X
1d AS3, X
AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

gateway router may learn about multiple paths to destination:

▪ AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS2,AS3,X from 2a
▪ AS1 gateway router 1c learns path AS3,X from 3a
▪ based on policy, AS1 gateway router 1c chooses path AS3,X and advertises path
within AS1 via iBGP
Network Layer: 5-69
 BGP: populating forwarding tables
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b
AS3,X
AS3,X 3a 3c
1
AS3,X
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2 2b
local link AS3,X
2 1 AS3, X
interfaces 1d
at 1a, 1d AS2,AS3,X 2a 2c

2d

dest interface ▪ recall: 1a, 1b, 1d learn via iBGP from 1c: “path to X goes through 1c”
… …
1c 1 ▪ at 1d: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c, use interface 1
X 1 ▪ at 1d: to get to X, use interface 1
… …
 BGP: populating forwarding tables
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2 2b
1d
2a 2c

2d

dest interface
… … ▪ recall: 1a, 1b, 1d learn via iBGP from 1c: “path to X goes through 1c”
1c 2
▪ at 1d: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c, use interface 1
X 2
… … ▪ at 1d: to get to X, use interface 1
▪ at 1a: OSPF intra-domain routing: to get to 1c, use interface 2
▪ at 1a: to get to X, use interface 2
Hot potato routing
AS 3 3b
AS 1 1b 3a 3c
1a 1c AS 2 3d X
2b 112
1d AS1,AS3,X AS3,X
2a 2c
201 263

2d
OSPF link weights

▪ 2d learns (via iBGP) it can route to X via 2a or 2c

▪ hot potato routing: choose local gateway that has least intra-domain
cost (e.g., 2d chooses 2a, even though more AS hops to X): don’t worry
about inter-domain cost!
Network Layer: 5-72
 BGP: achieving policy via advertisements
A,w B provider
x network
w A legend:
A,w C y customer
network:

ISP only wants to route traffic to/from its customer networks (does not want
to carry transit traffic between other ISPs – a typical “real world” policy)
▪ A advertises path Aw to B and to C
▪ B chooses not to advertise BAw to C!
▪ B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAw, since none of C, A, w are B’s customers
▪ C does not learn about CBAw path
▪ C will route CAw (not using B) to get to w
Network Layer: 5-73
 BGP: achieving policy via advertisements (more)
B provider
x network
w A legend:
C y customer
network:

ISP only wants to route traffic to/from its customer networks (does not want
to carry transit traffic between other ISPs – a typical “real world” policy)
▪ A,B,C are provider networks
▪ x,w,y are customer (of provider networks)
▪ x is dual-homed: attached to two networks
▪ policy to enforce: x does not want to route from B to C via x
▪ .. so x will not advertise to B a route to C
Network Layer: 5-74
BGP route selection
▪ router may learn about more than one route to destination
AS, selects route based on:
1. local preference value attribute: policy decision
2. shortest AS-PATH
3. closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. additional criteria

Network Layer: 5-75

Why different Intra-, Inter-AS routing ?
policy:
▪ inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic routed, who
routes through its network
▪ intra-AS: single admin, so policy less of an issue
scale:
▪ hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update traffic
performance:
▪ intra-AS: can focus on performance
▪ inter-AS: policy dominates over performance

Network Layer: 5-76