1.

The Living World

1. species - Mangifera indica, Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Panthera leo (lion).
2. Genus - potato and brinjal are two different species but both belong to the genus Solanum.
Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) and tiger (P. tigris) with several common features
3. Family- Solanum, Petunia and Datura are placed in the family Solanaceae genus Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put
along with genus, Felis (cats) in the family Felidae
4. Order - Plant families like Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order Polymoniales
The animal order, Carnivora, includes families like Felidae and Canidae.
5. The famous botanical gardens
• Kew - (England)
• Indian Botanical Garden, - Howrah (India)
• National Botanical Research Institute, - Lucknow (India)

2. Biological Classification
6. MONERA - a. Archaebacteria -
• extreme salty areas (halophiles)
• hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
• marshy areas (methanogens)
b. Eubacteria-
Nostoc and Anabaena.
7. Protista :- Chrysophytes - diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
Dinoflagellates – Gonyaulax
Euglenoids – Euglena
8. Protozoans :- Amoeboid protozoans - Amoeba, Entamoeba
• Flagellated protozoans - Trypanosoma
• Ciliated protozoans- Paramoecium
• Sporozoans - Plasmodium (malarial parasite)
9. Fungi :- Phycomycetes - Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread Mould), Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard)
• Ascomycetes- Penicillium, yeast (unicellular), Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora, morels and truffles (edibles)
• Basidiomycetes- Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), Puccinia (rust fungus)
• Deuteromycetes- Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma
10. Virus :-
(a) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
(b) Bacteriophage
11. Prions disease :-
• bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle
• Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans

3. Plant Kingdom
12. Algae :- occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear)
• isogamous - flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix)
or non-flagellated (non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra)
• anisogamous - Eudorina
• oogamous- e.g., Volvox, Fucus
• hydrocolloids (water holding substances)-
e.g., algin (brown algae)
carrageen (red algae)
• Agar- obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies.
 • Chlorella a unicellular alga rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space travellers.
• Chlorophyceae - Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara
• Phaeophyceae - Ectocarpus, Dicyota, Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus
• Rhodophyceae Polysiphonia, Poryphyra, Gracilaria and Gelidium
13. BRYOPHYTES:-
1. Liverworts - Marchantia
2. Mosses - Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum
14. PTERIDOPHYTES:-
• leaves in pteridophyta are small (microphylls) as in Selaginella or large (macrophylls) as in ferns.
• strobili or cones (Selaginella, Equisetum
• Psilopsida (Psilotum);
• Lycopsida (Selaginella, Lycopodium),
• Sphenopsida (Equisetum)
• Pteropsida (Dryopteris, Pteris, Adiantum)
15. GYMNOSPERMS :-
• the giant redwood tree Sequoia is one of the tallest tree species
• fungal association - mycorrhiza (Pinus)
• (Cycas) small specialised roots called coralloid roots
• stems are unbranched (Cycas) or branched (Pinus, Cedrus)
16. ANGIOSPERMS:-
smallest Wolffia to tall trees of Eucalyptus (over 100 metres).
17 LIFE CYCLES :-
Haplontic life cycle - Spirogyra, Volvox, some species of Chlamydomonas
Diplontic life cycle- Fucus, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Haplo diplontic - Bryophytes and Pteridophytes, Ectocarpus, Polysiphonia, kelps
4. ANIMAL KINGDOM
18. radial symmetry - Coelenterates, ctenophores and echinoderms
Bilateral symmetry - annelids, arthropods
diploblastic animals, e.g., coelenterates.
triploblastic animals (platyhelminthes to chordates)
coelomates, e.g., annelids, molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, hemichordates and chordates
pseudocoelomates, e.g., aschelminthes
acoelomates, e.g., platyhelminthes
earthworm - metamerism
Porifera - Sycon (Scypha), Spongilla (Fresh water sponge) and Euspongia (Bath Sponge)
Coelenterata Physalia (Portuguese man of war), Adamsia (Sea anemone), Pennatula (Sea pen), Gorgonia (Sea fan) and Meandrina
(Brain
Ctenophora - Pleurobrachia and Ctenoplana
Platyhelminthes - Taenia (Tapeworm), Fasciola (Liver fluke)
Aschelminthes - Ascaris (Roundworm), Wuchereria (Filaria worm), Ancylostoma (hookworm)
Annelida - Nereis, Pheretima (Earthworm), and Hirudinaria (Blood sucking leech) U
Arthropoda - Economically important insects Apis Honey bee, Bombyx (Silkworm), Laccifer (Lac insect)
Vectors - Anopheles, Culex and Aedes (mosquitoes)
Gregarious pest- Locusta (Locust)
Living fossils - Limulus (King crab)
Mollusca - Pila (Apple snail), Pinctada (Pearl oyster), Sepia (cuttlefish), Loligo (Squid), Octopus (Devil fish), Aplysia (Sea hare),
Dentalium (Tusk shell) and Chaetopleura
Echinodermata - Asteria (Star fish), Echinus (sea urchin), Antedon (Sea lily), Cucumaria (sea cucumber) amd Ophiura (Brittle
Hemichordata- Balanoglossus and Saccoglossus
Urochordata- Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum
Cephalochordata - Branchiostoma, Amphioxus or Lancelet
Cyclostomata - Petromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine (Hagfish)
Chondrichthyes - Scoliodon (Dog fish), Pristis (Saw fish), Carcharodon (Great white shark), Trygon (Sting
Osteichthyes -
Marine :-
Exocoetus (Flying fish), Hippocampus (Sea horse)
Fresh water :-
Labeo (Rohu), Catla (Katla ), Clarias (Magur)
Aquarium :-
Betta (Fighting fish), Pterophyllum (Angel fish)
Class Amphibia - Bufo (Toad), Rana (Frog), Hyla (Tree frog), Salamandra (Salamander), Ichthyophis (Limbless amphibia)
Class Reptilia - Chelone (Turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Chameleon (Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard), Crocodilus (Crocodile),
Alligator (Alligator). Hemidactylus (Wall lizard), Poisonous snakes - Naja (Cobra), Bangarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).
Class Aves - Corvus (Crow), Columba (Pigeon), Psittacula (Parrot), Struthio (Ostrich), Pavo (Peacock), Aptenodytes (Penguin),
Neophron (Vulture).
Class Mammalia - Oviparous-Ornithorhynchus (Platypus);
Viviparous - Macropus (Kangaroo), Pteropus (Flying fox), Camelus (Camel), Macaca (Monkey), Rattus (Rat), Canis (Dog), Felis
(Cat), Elephas (Elephant), Equus (Horse), Delphinus (Common dolphin), Balaenoptera (Blue whale), Panthera tigris (Tiger),
Panthera leo (Lion).

5. Morphology of Flowering Plants

19. TYPES OF ROOTS
1) Tap root- Carrot, turnip, mustard
2) Fibrous root - Wheat
3)Adventitious root - Monstera, banyan tree, grass

Modifications of root
1) Prop roots- Banyan tree
2) stilt roots- Sugarcane and maize
3) pnematophores - rhizophora

Modifications of stem
1) underground -Potato, Ginger, Turmeric, Zamainkand, Colocasia
2) Tendril- Cucumber, Pumpkin. Watermelon, Grapevine
3) Thorns - Citrus, Bougainvillea
4) Flat- opuntia
5) Cylindrical - euphorbia
6) Stolen mint, jasmine
7) offset - Pistia, Eichhornia (water hyacinth)
8) Sucker- Pineapple, Chrysanthemum, Banana

Types of Leaves
1) Pinnately - Neem
2) Palmately - Silk cotton

Modifications of Leaves
1) Spines - Cactus
2) Tendril - pea
3) storage onion
4) small and short lived leaves, Petioles expand - Australian acacia
5) Insectivorous plant - Pitcher plant, venus fly trap
Phyllotaxy
1)Alternate - Mustard , sunflower , china rose
2) Opposite - Calotropis , guava
3)Whorled - Alstonia

Types of symmetry in flower

1)Actionomorphic - Mustard, datura , chilli
2)Zygomorphic - Pea , bean , gulmohar , cassia 3)Asymmetric Canna
Types of ovary
1) Hypogynous - Mustard, china rose , brinjal
2) Perigynous - Rose , plum , peach
3) Epigynous - Guava , cucumber, ray florets of sunflower

Types of Aestivation
1)Valvate - Calotropis
2)Twisted - China rose, Lady finger , cotton 3)Imbricate Cassia , gulmohar
4)Vexillary/Papilionaceous - Pea , bean
Types of Placentation
1)Marginal - Pea
2)Axile - China rose , tomato , lemon
3)Parietal - Mustard, Argemone
4)Free-central - Dianthus , primrose 5)Basal Sunflower , marigold

PLANT FAMILIES
1) Fabeaceae -Pulses , Edible oil= soyabean, groundnut ,Dye= Indigofera , Fibres= Sunhemp ,Fodder= sesbania , trifolium ,
Ornamentals= lupin , sweet pea , Medicine= muliathi
2) Solanaceae- Food= brinjal , potato , Chilli
Medicine= belladonna , ashwagandha
Tobacco
Ornamentals= petunia
3) Liliaceae - Ornamentals= tulip, gloriosa , Medicine = aloe , Vegetable= asparagus , Colchicines (colchicum autumnale),
Onion (allium cepa)
4) Brassicace- Mustard . Cabbage , Turnip, Raddish , Cauliflower
Miscellaneous examples
1) perianth - Lily
2) variation in filament in length(androcieum) - Salvia , mustard
3) monoadelphous stamen - China rose
4) diadelphous stamen - Pea
5) polyadelphous stamen -Citrus
 6) syncarpous(carpels fused) - Mustard , tomato
7) apocarpous(carpels free) - Lotus , rose
8) Racemose inflorescence = Fabaceae and Brassicaceae
9) Cymose inflorescence - Solanaceae and liliaceae
10) Drupe $=$ Mango and cocunut
11) Non endospermous seeds (dicots) = Pulses(pea, bean, gram)

Castor is dicot but endosprmous seed

12) Endospermous seeds (monocots) - Grasses
orchids are monocots but non endospermic seeds

7. Structural Organisation in Animals

21. squamous epithelium - walls of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs cuboidal epithelium - ducts of glands and tubular parts
of nephrons in kidneys columnar epithelium - lining of stomach and intestine ciliated epithelium - hollow organs like
bronchioles and fallopian tubes

8. Cell: The Unit of Life

22. Inclusion bodies - phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules

9. Biomolecules
23. Pigments - Carotenoids, Anthocyanins, etc.

Alkaloids - Morphine, Codeine, etc.

Terpenoides - Monoterpenes, Diterpenes etc.
Essential oils - Lemon grass oil, etc.
Toxins - Abrin, Ricin
Lectins - Concanavalin A
Drugs - Vinblastin, curcumin, etc.
Polymeric substances - Rubber, gums, cellulose
Lectins - Concanavalin A
Drugs - Vinblastin, curcumin, etc.
Polymeric substances - Rubber, gums, cellulose
13. Photosynthesis
25. C4 plants - maize or sorghum - to observe the Kranz anatomy

15. Plant Growth and Development

26. Environmental heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur buttercup also represent the heterophyllous development due
to environment ( water)
- Auxins like IAA and indole butyric acid (IBA) have been isolated from plants.
- NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic) are synthetic auxins.
- vernalisation is seen in biennial plants
Sugarbeet, cabbages, carrots are some of the common biennials

17. Breathing and Exchange of Gases

- Cutaneous respiration - Earthworms
- Tracheal respiration = Insects
- Branchial respiration (Gills)- Most of the aquatic arthropods and molluscs
- Pulmonary respiration - Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals

19. Excretory Products and their Elimination

29. Ammonotelic animals - Many bony fishes, aquatic amphibians and aquatic insects

Ureotelic animals - Mammals, many terrestrial amphibians and marine fishes

Uricotelic animals - Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects
Excretory structures - Protonephridia or flame cells flatworm (Planaria), rotifers, some annelids and the cephalochordate Amphioxus
Nephridia earthworms and other annelids
Malpighian tubules - most of the insects including cockroaches
Antennal glands or green glands - crustaceans like prawns

20. Locomotion and Movement

- 30. in Paramoecium - cilia helps in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in locomotion as well.
- Hydra can use its tentacles for capturing its prey and also use them for locomotion.
- Amoeboid movement- Amoeba , microfilaments , macrophages and leucocytes
- Ciliary movement - Coordinated movement of cilia in trachea, passage of ova through the female reproductive tracts
- Muscular movement - Movement of our jaws, limbs, tongue
- Flagellar movement - Swimming of spermatozoa, canal system of sponges, locomotion of protozoans like Euglena
1. Fibrous joints - sutures, to form the cranium
2. cartilaginous joints - between the adjacent vertebrae
3. Synovial joints -
- Ball and socket joint (between humerus and pectoral girdle),
- hinge joint (knee joint),
- pivot joint (between atlas and axis),
- gliding joint (between the carpals) and
- saddle joint (between carpal and metacarpal of thumb)

21. Neural Control and Coordination

31. multipolar - found in the cerebral cortex bipolar found in the retina of eye unipolar - found usually in the embryonic stage

22. Chemical Coordination and Integration

32. pars distalis - anterior pituitary - produces
growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
Pars intermedia secretes only one hormone called melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).

Neurohypophysis (pars nervosa) stores and releases two hormones called oxytocin and vasopressin, which are actually synthesised
by the hypothalamus
(i) peptide, polypeptide, protein hormones (e.g., insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones, etc.)
(ii) steroids (e.g., cortisol, testosterone, estradiol and progesterone)
(iii) iodothyronines (thyroid hormones)
(iv) amino-acid derivatives (e.g., epinephrine).
12th NCERT EXAMPLES
2. Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants pollen grains viability
- cereals such as rice and wheat - within 30 minutes
- Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae - viability for months
- Multicarpellary, syncarpous pistil of Papaver;
- A multicarpellary, apocarpous gynoecium of Michelia;
- Kinds of Pollination
- Autogamy -
Viola (common pansy), Oxalis, and Commelina - chasmogamous flowers
- one ovule in ovary = Wheat, Paddy, Mango
- Biotic agents of pollination Animals
[Bees, Butterflies, beetles, wasp, ants, moths, birds (sunbird and humming birds ), bats, some primates(lemurs) and arboreal(tree
dwelling) rodents, reptiles (gecko lizard and garden lizard)
- Wind pollination = Grasses
- Water pollination Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes
- Vallisneria and Hydrilla (grow in fresh water )
- Zostera - grow in marine water
- Insect or Wind pollination - Water hyacinth and water lily
- Mutualism :- yucca and moth
- study pollen germination :- pollen from flowers such as pea, chickpea, Crotalaria, balsam and Vinca
- Persistent Endosperm - Castor and coconut
- Albuminous seed = Wheat, maize, barley, castor, sunflower
- Non Albuminous seed - Pea and groundnut
- False fruits of apple and strawberry
- very old yet viable seeds :- Lupinus arcticus, Phoenix dactylifera
- Parthenocarpic - fruits Banana
- Apomixis - Asteraceae and grasses
- Polyembryony - Citrus fruits and mango

3. Human Reproduction
Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental
lactogen (hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc.
- In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.
- estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine, etc., are increased several folds in the maternal blood

4. Reproductive Health
\#\#Natural methods :-
- Periodic abstinence
- Withdrawal or coitus interruptus
- Lactational amenorrhea
barrier methods :-
- Condoms
- Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults

Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)

- non-medicated IUDs (e.g., Lippes loop),
- copper releasing IUDs (CuT, Cu7, Multiload 375)
- hormone releasing IUDs (Progestasert, LNG-20)
- Except for hepatitis-B, genital herpes and HIV infections, other diseases are completely curable if detected early and treated
properly.
- In vitro fertilisation :embryo transfer, test tube baby, ZIFT-zygote intra fallopian transfer , IUT - intra uterine transfer
- in-vivo fertilisation :-

GIFT - gamete intra fallopian transfer , Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) , artificial insemination (AI), (IUI - intra-uterine
insemination)

5. Principles of Inheritance \& Variation

artificial selection and domestication from ancestral wild cows :Sahiwal cows in Punjab
- Incomplete Dominance :- Dog flower (snapdragon or Antirrhinum species)
- Co dominance :- ABO blood grouping
- Multiple Allelism :- ABO blood grouping
- Pleiotropy :- Phenylketonuria
- Male Heterogamety :- Humans and drosophila (XY)
- Female Heterogamety :- Birds (ZW)
- Grasshopper is an example of XO type of sex determination
- Chromosomal aberrations are commonly observed in cancer cells
- Point mutation :- Sickle cell anemia
- Mendelian Disorders :- Haemophilia , Cystic fibrosis, Sickle cell anemia, colorblindness, phenylketonuria, thalassemia
- Chromosomal disorders Down's syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Turner's syndrome

6. Molecular Basis of Inheritance

- Purines :- Adenine and Guanine
- Pyrimidines :- Cytosine, Uracil and Thymine
- RNA polymerase I transcribes rRNAs (28S, 18S, and 5.8S),
- the RNA polymerase III is responsible for transcription of tRNA, 5srRNA, and snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs).
- The RNA polymerase II transcribes precursor of mRNA, the heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
- The Human Genome Project :-
Many non-human model organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, Caenorhabditis elegans (a free living non-pathogenic nematode),
Drosophila (the fruit fly), plants (rice and Arabidopsis), etc., have also been sequenced.

7. Evolution
Homologous structures (Divergent evolution ) :-
- Forelimbs of whales, bats, cheetah and humans
- Vertebrate hearts or brains
- Thorns and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita
Analogous structures (Convergent evolution)
- Wings of butterfly and birds
- Eye of octopus and mammals
- Flippers of penguins and dolphins
adaptive radiation :-
- Darwin finches
- marsupials of Australia
mammals live wholly in water. Whales, dolphins, seals and sea cows are some examples
8. Human Health and Disease
- Passive Immunity :- Colostrum, Injection in case of snake bites
- Primary lymphoid organs :- Bone marrow, and thymus
- Secondary lymphoid organs :- Spleen lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer's patches of small intestine and appendix
- vector-borne (Aedes mosquitoes) diseases :- like dengue and chikungunya
- polio, diphtheria, pneumonia and tetanus have been controlled to a large extent by the use of vaccines
- Physical barriers :- skin and mucus coating
- Physiological barriers :- Acid in the stomach, saliva in the mouth, tears from eyes
- Cellular barriers :- PMNL-neutrophils, monocytes and natural killer , macrophages in tissues
- Cytokine barriers :- interferons

10. Microbes in Human Welfare

a. Microbes are also used to ferment fish, soyabean and bambooshoots to make foods
b. large holes in 'Swiss cheese' :- Propionibacterium sharmanii.
c. acid producers are Aspergillus niger (a fungus) of citric acid,

Acetobacter aceti (a bacterium) of acetic acid;

Clostridium butylicum (a bacterium) of butyric acid
Lactobacillus (a bacterium) of lactic acid
d. the Ladybird, and Dragonflies are useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes, respectively.
e. microbial biocontrol agents :- that can be introduced in order to control butterfly caterpillars is the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis
(often written as Bt ).
f. Baculoviruses are pathogens that attack insects and other arthropods
- g. Free living nitrogen fixing bacteria:- Azospirillum, Azotobacter
- Cyanobacteria as Nitrogen fixers :-Anabaena, Nostoc, Oscillatoria
- Symbiotic Nitrogen fixing Bacteria :- Rhizobium

12. Biotechnology and its Applications

strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects such as :-
- lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm),
- coleopterans (beetles) and
- dipterans (flies, mosquitoes)
genes crylAc and cryllAb control the cotton bollworms, that of crylAb controls corn borer
Molecular Diagnosis:-
- Recombinant DNA technology,
- Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) and
- Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA)

13. ecology
- mango trees do not and cannot grow in temperate countries like Canada and Germany,
- snow leopards are not found in Kerala forests and
- tuna fish are rarely caught beyond tropical latitudes in the ocean.
- Regulate :- All birds and mammals, and a very few lower vertebrate and invertebrate species
- Conform :- majority (99 per cent) of animals and nearly all plants
- Migrate: Keolado National Park (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia
- Suspend: In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick walled spores
- Diapause :- many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds
- Some organisms breed only once in their lifetime (Pacific salmon fish, bamboo)
- while others breed many times during their lifetime (most birds and mammals).
- Some produce a large number of small-sized offspring (Oysters, pelagic fishes)
- while others produce a small number of large-sized offspring (birds, mammals).
Predation :-
- Prickly pear cactus and cactus feeding predator (a moth)

Parasitism :-
- Life cycle of human liver fluke,
- Malarial parasite ,
- Cuscuta
Commensalism :-
- Barnacles growing on the back of a whale ,
- An orchid growing on as an epiphyte on a mango branch,
- Cattle Egret and grazing cattle,
- Sea anemone and clown fish

Mutualism :-
- Lichens mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthesizing algae or cyanobacteria
- Mycorrhizae association between fungi and roots of higher plants
- Pollination (zoophily , entomophily )
- Between fig tree and wasp

Competition
- Between superior barnacle Balanus and smaller barnacle
- Gaseous nutrient cycle :- Nitrogen, carbon cycle
- Sedimentary cycle :- Sulphur and phosphorus cycle
- Genetic diversity :- Rauwolfia vomitoria
- Species diversity :- Western Ghats have a greater amphibian species diversity than the Eastern Ghats.
- Ecological diversity :- India, for instance, with its deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries, and alpine
meadows has a greater ecosystem diversity than a Scandinavian country like Norway.
examples of recent extinctions include
the dodo (Mauritius), quagga (Africa), thylacine (Australia), Steller's Sea Cow (Russia) and three subspecies (Bali, Javan, Caspian)
of tiger.

Causes of biodiversity losses :-

(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation :- The Amazon rain forest
(ii) Over-exploitation :- Steller's sea cow, passenger pigeon
(iii) Alien species invasions: carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth (Eicchornia) , The Nile perch introduced into
Lake Victoria , African catfish Clarias gariepinus
(iv) Co-extinctions: - coevolved plant-pollinator mutualism narrowly utilitarian :- nature food (cereals, pulses, fruits), firewood,
fibre, construction material, industrial products (tannins,
lubricants, dyes, resins, perfumes ) and products of medicinal importance.
broadly utilitarian :- Pollination, oxygen in the earth's atmosphere
ethical :- We have a moral duty to care for their well-being and pass on our biological legacy in good order to future generations
In situ conservation :- Biosphere reserve, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries , biodiversity hotspots, sacred groves
Ex situ conservation :- Zoological parks, botanical gardens , wildlife safari parks , cryopreservation techniques