Lecture - Module 4:
Genetics
It is the biology of heredity (mechanism) and variation (diversity).
Heredity (or inheritance) is the process of passing on of traits from parents to offspring from
either sexual or asexual reproduction.
Traits (phenotype) – these are expressed characteristics of an individual inherited from
one generation to another.
Genes (genotype) – these are a set of information from the DNA that encodes for
specific trait or group of traits.
Generation – the descent of traits from parents to offspring.
Variation – is the presence of different frequencies of traits among individuals or populations.
Genome – these are the organism’s complete set of genes.
Chromosome – these contains bundles of tightly coiled DNA located within the nucleus
of every cell in the body.
Nucleosome – subunit of chromosome where two (2) turns of DNA is wrapped around a
set of eight (8) proteins called histones.
DNA – self-replicating macromolecule in every living organism
Gregor Mendel is not a pioneer in genetic modification in organisms. In his university, similar
scientists that are ahead of him such as Karl Nestler has already performed hybridization in
sheep. However, Mendel came to rise when he started studying 29,000 pea plants for
hybridization. It is a staple food in Czech republic that is why good crop yield is essential to the
monastery.
The peas are in constant differentiating characteristics due to foreign pollen from wild peas
leading to random crop yields.
To address the problem, he tabulated the traits:
Law of Segregation and Independent Assortment
Law of Segregation – only one allele is inherited from each of the parent since chromosomes
separate during meiosis.
Law of Independent Assortment - genes of different trait do not affect other genes of different
trait in expression. It means that expression of trait C will not affect the expression of trait D.
Mendel’s Results:
*self-fertilization: both flowers coming from the same plant pollination
Gene Interactions - it is the different expressions of genes due to different interplay between
genes. These are some the possible explanations for different phenotype expressions
compared to the results of studies of Mendel.
There are two (2) types of gene interactions:
a. Allelic Interaction (1 gene only) – interaction of alleles.
b. Non-allelic interaction (2 genes) – interaction of alleles in different genes.
1. Complete Dominance – this occurs when only one of the alleles is expressed in the
phenotype by masking the expression of the recessive allele.
2. Incomplete Dominance – this occurs when the expression of the recessive gene is not
completely masked by the expression of the dominant gene.
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3. Co-Dominance – this occurs when the expression of the genes lacks dominance and
recessiveness.
4. Over-Dominance – this occurs when the expression of the genes exceeds measurement.
Genetic Interactions: DNA Recombination
During Meiosis I (Prophase I), there is a DNA activity
wherein closely related chromosomes that are paired
together develops a chiasma (chiasmata pl.) or
linkage. The pairing of homologous (partner)
chromosomes results in exchange of DNA material
between parental and maternal DNA resulting into
different set of genes in their offspring.
There are two (2) types of linkage:
(– cross over of DNA)
1. Complete Linkage
2. Incomplete Linkage
DNA Recombination: Complete Linkage
There is a complete linkage interaction between the two (2) chromosomes if they are so
physically associated to each other making them physically impossible to exchange their
segments with each other.
DNA Recombination: Incomplete Linkage
There is an incomplete linkage interaction between the two (2) chromosomes if there are
crossing overs that occur during meiosis that result in different genes in offspring.
A. Single-Cross Over in gene B and D
B. Single-Cross Over in gene A and B
C. Double-Cross Over
D. Three-Strand Cross Over
E. Four-Strand Cross Over
Non-Allelic Gene Interaction: Novel Phenotype
After the discovery of the computation model of Mendel, there are several instances that do not
follow the computation. Thus, the dihybrid testcross was discovered by George Beadle and
Edward Tatum in 1941.
Example:
Gene G – controls coat color G – multicolored (dominant) , g - white (recessive)
Gene H – control coat length H – short-haired (dominant) , h – long-haired (recessive)
The development of dihybrid testcrosses leads to the idea of modifier genes – these are genes
that enhance or inhibit the expression of the other gene.
These are the following gene interactions:
1. Novel Phenotype – complete dominance at gene pairs (mendelian interaction)
Non-Allelic Gene Interaction: Recessive Epistasis
2. Recessive Epistasis – complete dominance but recessive is epistatic.
The modifier gene completely nulls, the effect of the other genes if it is recessive.
Example:
If a person has both recessive gene D, other genes will not be expressed.
Gene F – eye color (brown – dominant, blue – recessive)
Gene D – melanin production (brown – dominant, albino – recessive)
3. Dominant Epistasis – complete dominance but dominant is epistatic.
The modifier gene completely nulls, the effect of the other genes if it is dominant.
Example:
If a person has dominant gene B, other genes will not be expressed.
Gene B – rooster comb (prominent – dominant, small - recessive)
Gene P – rooster comb shape (rounded – dominant, flat– recessive)
4. Complimentary Epistasis – at least one allele of each gene is dominant.
Example:
If a person has dominant gene B, other genes will not be expressed.
Gene B – corolla (multilayered – dominant, single - recessive)
Gene P – petal color (multicolored – dominant, single – recessive)
5. Duplicate Gene – at least one dominant presence in any gene.
Example:
If a person has dominant gene B, other genes will not be expressed.
Gene N – corolla (colored – dominant, white - recessive)
Gene A – petal color (multicolored – dominant, single-white – recessive)
Sex-Linkage
There are patterns of inheritance that is highly and/or only dependent on the gene interactions
in sex chromosomes. It should be noted that the chances of getting male or female offspring is
always 50%.
There are two (2) types of gene interactions:
1. Sex-Linked Traits – genes controlling the
trait can be found in X and Y chromosome.
2. Sex–Influenced Traits – gene controlling
the trait can be found in autosomal
chromosome.
Sex-Linked Traits – genes controlling the trait can be found in X and Y chromosome.
X-Linked Dominant
X-Linked Recessive
Pedigree Analysis
Pedigree is described as a graphical representation of distribution and expression of genetic
traits or disease among members of interrelated generations.
Common Autosomal Traits