from classification of electro chemical techniques 1. what are telectrode used for various types 2.

indicator working proplems nernst eqation problems 3. what are the drawbacks reference electrode
[Link] of potentiometry 5. Detecting or visualizing agent [Link] taunmarism [Link]
permeation 7. return volume 8. ion exchange chromotography [Link] we can change thw matrix
[Link] matrix ion [Link] to you make cationic exchange 11. what are eluent for ion
exchange chromotography [Link] chromotography how should be the solvent [Link]
technique [Link] and acetalization 15. phase separation/ boundaries [Link] bridge [Link]
equation refer ppt give answer all these questions

1. Electrodes used for various electrochemical techniques

Electrodes are classified into indicator and reference electrodes.

(a) Indicator electrodes

Respond to the analyte concentration and develop a potential.

• Metal electrodes: Pt, Au, Ag (used in redox systems)

• Ion-selective electrodes (ISE):

Glass electrode (H⁺), Fluoride electrode, Chloride electrode, Nitrate electrode

(b) Reference electrodes

Maintain constant potential.

• Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

• Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE)

• Silver–Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl) (most commonly used)

unit4-ppt2

2. Indicator electrode – working principle & Nernst equation problems

Working principle

• Indicator electrode responds selectively to an ion or redox couple.

• Change in ion activity produces a measurable potential.

• Cell voltage = Indicator electrode potential − Reference electrode potential

Nernst Equation
0.0591
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − log⁡ 𝑄
𝑛

For ion-selective electrodes:

 𝐸 = 𝐸 0 + 0.0591log⁡ 𝑎ion

Example (pH electrode):

• Potential changes by 59 mV per pH unit at 25°C

unit4-ppt2

3. Drawbacks of reference electrodes

• Liquid junction potential may develop

• Temperature dependent

• SCE contains toxic mercury

• Requires constant chloride concentration

• Not suitable for all media

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4. Applications of potentiometry

• pH measurement using glass electrode

• Acid–base titrations

• Redox titrations

• Precipitation titrations

• Complexometric titrations

• Measurement of ion concentration in water, blood, soil, food

unit4-ppt2

5. Detecting / Visualizing agents (TLC)

Specific detecting agents

• Ninhydrin – Amino acids

• Dragendorff’s reagent – Alkaloids

• 2,4-DNP – Aldehydes & ketones

• Ferric chloride – Phenols

Non-specific detecting agents

• Iodine chamber
 • KMnO₄ spray

• Sulphuric acid spray

• UV chamber (fluorescent plates)

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

6. Keto–enol tautomerism

• Dynamic equilibrium between keto and enol forms

• Occurs in aldehydes and ketones

• Enol form participates in aldol reactions

• Important in TLC staining reactions

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

7. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)

• Also called Size Exclusion Chromatography

• Separation based on molecular size

• Larger molecules elute first

• Smaller molecules enter pores and elute later

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

8. Retention volume

• Volume of mobile phase required to elute a solute

• In GPC:
1
𝑉0 ∝
Molecular Weight

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

9. Ion Exchange Chromatography

• Separation based on electrostatic interaction

• Uses ion-exchange resins with fixed charges

• Used for amino acids, proteins, ions

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2
10. How can we change the matrix?

• By chemical modification

• By attaching different functional groups

• By changing degree of cross-linking

• By changing spacer arms

Unit3-chromatography-ppt3

11. Exchangeable matrix ions

• Cation exchangers: H⁺, Na⁺

• Anion exchangers: Cl⁻, OH⁻

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

12. How do you make a cation exchanger?

• Use resin with fixed negative groups

• Examples:

o Sulfonic acid groups (–SO₃⁻)

o Carboxylic acid groups (–COO⁻)

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

13. Eluents for ion exchange chromatography

• Dilute acids or bases

• Salt solutions (NaCl, KCl)

• Buffers with controlled pH

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

14. Column chromatography – solvent selection

• Should dissolve analyte

• Should not react with stationary phase

• Polarity chosen based on compound

• Mobile phase saturated with stationary phase

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

15. Elution techniques

• Isocratic elution – constant solvent

• Gradient elution – changing solvent polarity

• Stepwise elution

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

16. Aldol and acetalization reactions

• Occur during TLC visualization

• Aldol reaction forms conjugated colored products

• Acetalization occurs with alcohols

• Basis of p-anisaldehyde & vanillin stains

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

17. Phase separation / boundaries

• Separation between two immiscible phases

• Essential in partition chromatography

• Determines distribution coefficient

Unit3-chromatography-ppt2

18. Salt bridge

• Maintains electrical neutrality

• Prevents liquid junction potential

• Contains KCl or KNO₃ in agar gel

• Completes the circuit

Unit4-ppt1

19. Nernst equation (again – exam definition)

0.0591
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − log⁡ 𝑄
𝑛
 • Relates electrode potential to ion concentration

• Fundamental equation in potentiometry

Q1. Classification of Electrochemical Techniques & Electrodes Used

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Electrochemical techniques are analytical methods in which electrical properties such as potential,
current, charge, or conductivity are measured to obtain chemical information. These methods are
widely used because they are simple, sensitive, rapid, and accurate.

Classification of Electrochemical Techniques

Electroanalytical methods are classified based on what electrical quantity is measured.

1. Potentiometric Methods

• Measured quantity: Potential (Voltage)

• Current is nearly zero

• Used to measure ion concentration

Example: pH measurement, ion-selective electrodes

2. Voltammetric / Amperometric Methods

• Measured quantity: Current

• Potential is varied

• Used for redox analysis

Example: Cyclic voltammetry, polarography

3. Conductometric Methods

• Measured quantity: Conductance

• Depends on ionic strength of solution

Example: Conductometric titrations

4. Coulometric Methods
 • Measured quantity: Total charge

• Based on Faraday’s laws

Electrodes Used in Electrochemical Techniques

Electrodes are divided into Indicator electrodes and Reference electrodes.

(A) Indicator Electrodes

Indicator electrodes respond to the analyte concentration and develop a potential.

Types of Indicator Electrodes

1. Metal Electrodes

• Made of Pt, Au, Ag

• Used in redox systems

Example:
Pt | Fe²⁺ / Fe³⁺

2. Ion-Selective Electrodes (ISE)

• Respond selectively to a specific ion

• Work based on membrane potential

Examples:

• Glass electrode → H⁺

• Fluoride electrode → F⁻

• Chloride electrode → Cl⁻

(B) Reference Electrodes

Reference electrodes provide a constant and known potential.

Types:

1. Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

2. Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE)

3. Silver–Silver Chloride Electrode (Ag/AgCl)

Simple Line Diagram (Exam-Style)

Indicator Electrode Reference Electrode

| |

| |

[ Test Solution ] ---- Salt Bridge ---- [ KCl ]

| |

| |

Voltmeter → Measures Cell Potential

Advantages of Electrochemical Techniques

• High sensitivity

• Simple instrumentation

• Suitable for colored and turbid solutions

• Rapid analysis

Conclusion

Electrochemical techniques play an important role in chemical, biological, environmental, and clinical
analysis. The choice of technique depends on the electrical parameter being measured and the type
of electrode used.

Q2. Potentiometry – Principle, Indicator Electrode, Nernst Equation & Problems

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique in which the potential difference between two

electrodes is measured without drawing current. The measured potential is related to the
concentration of the analyte.

Principle of Potentiometry

• Based on measurement of cell EMF

• Uses a galvanic cell

• Potential depends on ion activity

𝐸cell = 𝐸indicator − 𝐸reference

Indicator Electrode – Working Principle

• Responds selectively to analyte

• Develops potential due to ion activity

• Potential follows Nernst equation

Example: Glass pH Electrode

• Responds only to H⁺ ions

• Potential difference develops across glass membrane

• Change in potential = 59 mV per pH unit at 25°C

Reference Electrode

• Maintains constant potential

• Commonly used: Ag/AgCl electrode

Nernst Equation

The relationship between electrode potential and concentration is given by:

0.0591
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − log⁡ 𝑄
𝑛

Where:

• 𝐸= electrode potential

• 𝐸 0 = standard electrode potential

• 𝑛= number of electrons

• 𝑄= reaction quotient

For Ion-Selective Electrodes:

𝐸 = 𝐸 0 + 0.0591log⁡ 𝑎ion

Numerical Example (Exam Type)

Calculate the potential of a H⁺ electrode at pH = 3.

𝐸 = 0.0591log⁡[𝐻 + ]
[𝐻 + ] = 10−3
 𝐸 = 0.0591 × (−3) = −0.177 V

Simple Line Diagram

Glass Electrode Reference Electrode

| |

| |

H⁺ ions KCl solution

| |

-------- Voltmeter -------

Applications of Potentiometry

• pH measurement

• Acid–base titrations

• Redox titrations

• Ion concentration determination

• Clinical and environmental analysis

Advantages

• No indicator required

• High accuracy

• Suitable for colored solutions

Conclusion

Potentiometry is a powerful and widely used electroanalytical technique. Its accuracy depends on
proper electrode selection and application of the Nernst equation.

Q3. Drawbacks of Reference Electrodes

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction
A reference electrode is an electrode that maintains a constant and known potential, independent
of the test solution. It is used along with an indicator electrode in potentiometric measurements.

Common reference electrodes are:

• Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

• Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE)

• Silver–Silver Chloride (Ag/AgCl)

Although reference electrodes are essential, they have certain limitations.

Drawbacks / Limitations of Reference Electrodes

1. Liquid Junction Potential

• When two solutions of different composition meet, a junction potential develops.

• This introduces error in measured cell potential.

2. Temperature Dependence

• Electrode potential varies with temperature.

• Accurate measurements require constant temperature control.

3. Toxicity Issues

• Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE) contains mercury, which is toxic.

• Requires careful handling and disposal.

4. Maintenance Problems

• Reference electrodes require:

o Proper filling solution

o Periodic replacement of electrolyte

o Prevention of contamination

5. Limited Compatibility

• Not suitable for:

o Non-aqueous solutions

o Strongly oxidizing or reducing media

6. Drift in Potential

• Over time, reference electrode potential may drift due to:

o Evaporation

o Leakage

o Contamination

Conclusion

Although reference electrodes provide stable potential, factors like junction potential, toxicity,
temperature sensitivity, and maintenance issues limit their universal application. Hence, Ag/AgCl
electrodes are preferred due to better safety and stability.

Q4. Applications of Potentiometry

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Potentiometry is an electroanalytical method in which cell potential is measured without drawing

current. The measured potential is related to the concentration of ions in solution.

Major Applications of Potentiometry

1. pH Measurement

• Most common application

• Uses glass electrode

• Used in laboratories, industries, medicine, agriculture

2. Acid–Base Titrations

• End point detected by sharp change in potential

• Useful for colored and turbid solutions

3. Redox Titrations

• Used in oxidation–reduction reactions

• Example: Fe²⁺ vs Fe³⁺ systems

4. Precipitation Titrations

• Used for halides (Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻)

• Uses silver electrode

5. Complexometric Titrations

• Used for metal ions

• Example: Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺ determination

6. Clinical Analysis

• Determination of:

o Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ in blood and urine

7. Environmental Analysis

• Water quality monitoring

• Determination of:

o Fluoride

o Nitrate

o Chloride

8. Industrial Applications

• Food industry

• Pharmaceutical analysis

• Electroplating baths

Advantages of Potentiometry

• High accuracy

• No visual indicator needed

• Works with colored solutions

• Simple instrumentation
Conclusion

Potentiometry is a versatile and reliable analytical technique with applications ranging from
laboratory analysis to industrial and clinical fields.

Q5. Detecting / Visualizing Agents in TLC

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

After separation of components in Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), the spots may be colorless.
Therefore, detecting or visualizing agents are used to make spots visible.

Classification of Detecting Agents

A. Specific Detecting Agents

Used for identifying specific functional groups.

Detecting Agent Compound Detected

Ninhydrin Amino acids

Dragendorff’s reagent Alkaloids

Ferric chloride Phenols

2,4-DNP Aldehydes & ketones

B. Non-Specific Detecting Agents

Detects general organic compounds.

• Iodine chamber

• KMnO₄ spray

• Sulphuric acid spray

• UV chamber

Methods of Visualization

1. Iodine Chamber Method

• TLC plate kept in iodine vapour

• Brown spots appear

 • Non-destructive method

2. UV Detection

• Uses fluorescent stationary phase

• Dark spots appear on glowing background

3. Spray Reagents

• Plate sprayed with reagent

• Heated to develop colored spots

• Destructive method

Importance of Visualization

• Helps identify compounds

• Determines purity

• Confirms separation efficiency

Conclusion

Detecting agents play a vital role in TLC by converting invisible spots into visible ones. Choice of
detecting agent depends on the nature of the compound.

Next I will give:

Q6. Keto–Enol Tautomerism

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Keto–enol tautomerism is a type of structural isomerism in which a compound exists in two

interconvertible forms, namely the keto form and the enol form. These two forms are in dynamic
equilibrium with each other.

Keto Form

• Contains a carbonyl group (C=O)

 • More stable in most compounds

• Common in aldehydes and ketones

Example:
CH₃–CO–CH₃ (Acetone)

Enol Form

• Contains a carbon–carbon double bond (C=C) and –OH group

• Less stable

• Exists in small amount

Example:
CH₂=C(OH)–CH₃

Mechanism of Keto–Enol Tautomerism

1. Hydrogen atom shifts from α-carbon to oxygen

2. Double bond rearranges

3. Equilibrium established between keto and enol forms

Factors Affecting Tautomerism

• Presence of α-hydrogen

• Solvent

• Temperature

• Acidic or basic conditions

Importance in Chromatography

• Enol form participates in aldol reactions

• Important in TLC visualization

• Responsible for color development with p-anisaldehyde and vanillin stains

Applications

• Organic synthesis

• Reaction mechanisms

• TLC detection methods

 • Biochemical reactions

Conclusion

Keto–enol tautomerism plays a crucial role in organic reactions and chromatographic detection
techniques. Though keto form is more stable, enol form is highly reactive.

Q7. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Gel Permeation Chromatography is a liquid chromatography technique used to separate molecules

based on molecular size. It is also known as:

• Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC)

• Gel Filtration Chromatography (GFC)

Principle

• Separation is based on pore size of the gel

• No adsorption or chemical interaction

• Larger molecules elute first

• Smaller molecules elute later

Stationary Phase

• Porous polymeric gel

• Examples:

o Agarose

o Polyacrylamide

o Dextran

Mobile Phase

• Liquid solvent (usually water or buffer)

Working Mechanism
 • Large molecules cannot enter pores → move faster

• Medium molecules partially enter pores

• Small molecules fully enter pores → slow movement

Retention Volume

• Retention volume is inversely proportional to molecular weight

1
𝑉0 ∝
Molecular Weight

Applications

• Molecular weight determination

• Protein separation

• Desalting of biomolecules

• Polymer analysis

• Separation of peptides and polysaccharides

Advantages

• Gentle technique

• No chemical interaction

• Suitable for biological samples

Limitations

• Limited resolution

• Cannot separate similar-sized molecules

Conclusion

Gel Permeation Chromatography is a simple and effective method for size-based separation, widely
used in polymer and biochemical analysis.

Q8. Retention Volume

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Retention volume is an important chromatographic parameter that indicates the volume of mobile
phase required to elute a solute from the column.

Definition

Retention volume (Vᵣ) is the volume of mobile phase passed through the column from injection to
peak maximum.

Expression

𝑉𝑅 = 𝑡𝑅 × flow rate

Where:

• Vᵣ = retention volume

• tᵣ = retention time

Void Volume (V₀)

• Volume required to elute an unretained solute

• Represents mobile phase outside pores

Retention Volume in GPC

• Directly related to molecular size

• Larger molecules → smaller Vᵣ

• Smaller molecules → larger Vᵣ

Importance

• Identifies compounds

• Determines molecular weight

• Evaluates column performance

Factors Affecting Retention Volume

• Flow rate
 • Column length

• Particle size

• Nature of stationary phase

Conclusion

Retention volume is a fundamental chromatographic parameter that helps in understanding solute

behavior and separation efficiency.

Q9. Ion Exchange Chromatography

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Ion exchange chromatography is a technique used for separation of charged molecules based on
their electrostatic interaction with an ion-exchange resin.

Principle

• Exchange of ions between solution and resin

• Resin contains fixed charged groups

• Mobile ions replace counter ions on resin

Types of Ion Exchangers

1. Cation Exchange Chromatography

• Resin contains negative charges

• Exchanges cations (Na⁺, Ca²⁺)

2. Anion Exchange Chromatography

• Resin contains positive charges

• Exchanges anions (Cl⁻, NO₃⁻)

Stationary Phase

• Insoluble polymeric resin

• Functional groups attached to matrix

Mobile Phase (Eluent)

• Buffers

• Salt solutions

• pH-controlled solvents

Applications

• Protein purification

• Amino acid separation

• Water purification

• Pharmaceutical analysis

Advantages

• High selectivity

• High capacity

• Reusable resins

Conclusion

Ion exchange chromatography is a powerful technique for separating ionic species and is widely used
in biochemical and industrial analysis.

Next remaining:

10. Matrix in Chromatography – How Can We Change the Matrix?

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

In chromatography, a matrix refers to the solid support or framework on which the stationary phase
or functional groups are attached. Modification of the matrix is necessary to improve selectivity,
capacity, and efficiency.

Methods to Change / Modify the Matrix

1. Chemical Modification

• Functional groups are chemically attached to the matrix

• Example: –SO₃⁻, –COO⁻, –NH₃⁺ groups

2. Degree of Cross-Linking

• Increasing cross-linking:

o Decreases pore size

o Increases mechanical strength

• Decreasing cross-linking:

o Increases pore size

o Improves diffusion

3. Change in Spacer Arms

• Spacer arms reduce steric hindrance

• Improve binding between analyte and matrix

4. Surface Treatment

• Surface area and polarity can be altered

• Improves interaction with solute molecules

5. Polymer Type

• Agarose

• Polyacrylamide

• Cellulose

Importance of Matrix Modification

• Improves resolution

• Enhances selectivity

• Increases binding capacity

Conclusion

Matrix modification plays a vital role in chromatographic separations by optimizing interaction

between analyte and stationary phase.
Q11. Exchangeable Matrix Ions

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Ion exchange chromatography involves resins containing exchangeable ions which are replaced by
analyte ions during separation.

Types of Exchangeable Ions

1. Cation Exchange Resins

• Fixed negative groups

• Exchangeable ions:

o H⁺

o Na⁺

o Ca²⁺

Example:
–SO₃⁻ Na⁺

2. Anion Exchange Resins

• Fixed positive groups

• Exchangeable ions:

o Cl⁻

o OH⁻

Example:
–NH₃⁺ Cl⁻

Role of Exchangeable Ions

• Facilitate ion exchange process

• Control selectivity

• Affect elution behavior

Conclusion
Exchangeable matrix ions are essential for the ion exchange mechanism and determine the efficiency
of separation.

Q12. How Do You Make a Cation Exchange Resin?

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

A cation exchange resin is designed to exchange positively charged ions (cations) from the solution.

Preparation of Cation Exchange Resin

1. Selection of Polymer Matrix

• Polystyrene

• Agarose

• Polyacrylamide

2. Introduction of Acidic Groups

• Sulfonation introduces –SO₃H groups

• Carboxylation introduces –COOH groups

3. Conversion to Exchange Form

• Acidic hydrogen replaced with Na⁺ or H⁺

• Ready for cation exchange

Working

Resin–SO₃⁻ Na⁺ + Ca²⁺ → Resin–SO₃⁻ Ca²⁺ + Na⁺

Conclusion

Cation exchange resins are prepared by introducing fixed negative groups into a polymer matrix,
enabling selective cation separation.
Q13. Eluents Used in Ion Exchange Chromatography

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Eluents are mobile phase solutions used to remove bound ions from the ion exchange resin.

Types of Eluents

1. Salt Solutions

• NaCl

• KCl

• NH₄Cl

2. Buffer Solutions

• Control pH

• Maintain ion stability

3. Acids and Bases

• Dilute HCl

• Dilute NaOH

Role of Eluent

• Competes with analyte ions

• Controls elution order

• Adjusts separation selectivity

Conclusion

Choice of eluent is critical in ion exchange chromatography and depends on analyte type and resin
used.

Q14. Column Chromatography – How Should the Solvent Be?

(15-Mark Answer)
Introduction

In column chromatography, the solvent (mobile phase) plays a major role in separation efficiency.

Characteristics of a Good Solvent

1. Should Dissolve the Sample

• Sample must be soluble in solvent

2. Proper Polarity

• Less polar solvent → slow elution

• More polar solvent → faster elution

3. Chemically Inert

• Should not react with sample or stationary phase

4. Good Flow Properties

• Should flow smoothly through column

5. Saturated with Stationary Phase

• Prevents stripping of stationary phase

Conclusion

Proper solvent selection ensures good resolution, controlled elution, and effective separation in
column chromatography.

Q15. Elution Techniques

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Elution is the process of removing separated components from the column using a mobile phase.

Types of Elution Techniques

1. Isocratic Elution

• Same solvent composition throughout

• Simple and reproducible

2. Gradient Elution

• Solvent polarity changes gradually

• Improves separation of complex mixtures

3. Stepwise Elution

• Solvent polarity increased in steps

• Useful for mixtures with wide polarity range

Importance

• Controls separation efficiency

• Reduces analysis time

• Improves resolution

Conclusion

Choice of elution technique depends on sample complexity and separation requirements.

Q16. Aldol and Acetalization Reactions (TLC Visualization)

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Aldol and acetalization reactions occur during TLC visualization using stains like p-anisaldehyde and
vanillin.

Aldol Reaction

• Occurs in aldehydes and ketones

• Requires enol or enolate formation

• Produces conjugated colored compounds

Acetalization Reaction

• Reaction between aldehydes and alcohols

• Occurs under acidic conditions

• Produces colored spots on TLC plate

Importance in TLC

• Helps detect colorless compounds

• Enhances sensitivity

• Used in qualitative analysis

Conclusion

Aldol and acetalization reactions form the chemical basis for many TLC staining techniques.

Q17. Phase Separation / Phase Boundaries

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

Phase separation refers to the existence of two immiscible phases in chromatography.

Phase Boundary

• Interface between mobile and stationary phases

• Essential for solute distribution

Role in Chromatography

• Governs partition coefficient

• Determines retention behavior

• Affects resolution

Applications

• Partition chromatography
 • Liquid–liquid chromatography

Conclusion

Phase boundaries are fundamental to chromatographic separation based on differential solubility.

Q18. Salt Bridge

(15-Mark Answer)

Introduction

A salt bridge is used in electrochemical cells to complete the electrical circuit.

Composition

• Agar gel

• Saturated KCl or KNO₃ solution

Functions

• Maintains electrical neutrality

• Prevents liquid junction potential

• Allows ion migration

Importance

• Ensures steady cell potential

• Essential for accurate measurements

Conclusion

Salt bridge plays a critical role in maintaining charge balance and reliable electrochemical
measurements.

Q19. Nernst Equation

(15-Mark Answer)
Introduction

The Nernst equation relates electrode potential to ion concentration.

Equation
0.0591
𝐸 = 𝐸0 − log⁡ 𝑄
𝑛

Significance

• Predicts electrode potential

• Basis of potentiometry

• Used in pH calculations

Applications

• pH measurement

• Redox reactions

• Electrochemical cells

Conclusion

The Nernst equation is a fundamental equation in electrochemistry connecting chemical equilibrium

and electrical potential.

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