REPRODUCTION

Reproduction: It is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals similar to
[Link] ensured continuity of life on earth.
● It is a bridge to hereditary transmission.
● It involves a continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells by copying of DNA
(Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the chromosomes of the cell.
● Copying of DNAs is also not a foolproof exercise, even minute changes bring about variation in
the blueprint of the offsprings.
● The useful variations are retained while the harmful ones do not go beyond.
● Actually, variations help the species to withstand drastic environmental changes, thus save the
species from becoming extinct and promotes its survival for a longer time.
● This inbuilt tendency of variation is the “basis” for Evolution
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Types of Asexual Reproduction is Unicellular Organism
(i) Binary Fission: Seen in bacteria, protozoa like Amoeba, Paramecium. (In these first
pseudopodia withdrawn (karyokinesis) the nucleus of the parent cell divides and then the cytoplasm
divides(cytokinesis) resulting in the formation of two daughter cells).It occurs during highly
favourable conditions. The cell division can occur in any plane as in case of Amoeba.

(ii) Multiple Fission: Seen in Plasmodium, (a malarial parasite). In this during unfavourable
conditions, the parent cell develops a thick resistant wall around itself forming a cyst. Within the
wall, the cytoplasm divides many times to form many plasmodia. When conditions become
favourable, the cyst wall breaks and the Plasmodium are released.

(iii) Budding: Seen in Yeast (a fungus). The parent yeast cell develops a protrusion or an outgrowth
at its upper end. The nucleus of the parent cell divides and one of them moves into the outgrowth
which grows bigger and finally separates from the parent cell to lead an independent existence. Very
often if the conditions are highly favourable, a chain of buds is formed.
Types of Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms :
(i) Fragmentation: Seen in multicellular organisms which have a relatively simple body
organisation like Spirogyra. Spirogyra has a filamentous body. (If it breaksinto smaller pieces or
fragments). Each fragment has the capacity to form a new individual.

However, all multicellular organisms cannot show cell-by-cell division as cells from tissues
which form organs.
These organs are placed at definite positions in the body. Hence, they need to use more
complex methods of reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Organisms

(ii) Regeneration: It is the ability of organisms to develop their lost parts. Some organisms show
have high regenerative capacity it is also a means of
reproduction for example; Planaria.

(iii) Budding: Seen in Hydra. Parent Hydra develops a bud at its lower end. This grows in size and
finally breaks off to live independently
iv) Spore Formation: Seen in Rhizopus (a fungus). Rhizopus body is made up of thread-like
structures called hyphae. The erect hyphae bear sporangia inside which reproductive structures
called spores are formed. Spores are asexually reproducing bodies having a thick protective wall.
They are produced during unfavourable times and help to tide over the unfavourable environmental
conditions. When the spores fall on a suitable medium, each one forms a new individual.

Vegetative Propagation

A mode of reproduction in which parts like the stem, root, leaves develop into new plants under
favourable
conditions.

Benefits:
● Plants can bear flowers, fruits more quickly than those produced from seeds.
● Growing banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
● The genetical similarity is maintained in the plants. Example, sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering
or grafting.
Types of Vegetative Propagation: It is two types
● Natural vegetative propagation.
● Artificial vegetative propagation (Tissue culture).
Mint reproduces naturally by roots. Sugarcane, jasmine by stems and Bryophyllum by leaves. In
bryophyllum buds are produced in the
notches along the leaf margins and when they fall on the soil, they develop into new plants.
Artificial vegetative propagation is carried out for the production of economically important
and useful plants. It is a method that is mainly used to introduce desired characters in the
new plants.

The most used techniques are as follows:

Cutting
Grafting
Layering
Tissue culture

Cutting:
The small part of the stem with nodes and internodes is removed from the parent, planted
in moist soil, and developed as a new plant. And, cutting is also possible in the roots of
some plants

Method of stem cutting

First, cut out the small part of the stem with node and bud from an adult plant.
Always keep the part with bud above the ground, and the other part should bury in the soil.
After some days, the buried part of the stem will start to produce the adventitious roots,
which eventually develops as an individual plant. The new plant is structurally and
genetically the same as the parent plant. The cutting method is successful in Champa,
rose, money plant and sugarcane.

Layering in plants
Layering is used for low-growing and flexible
stems. In this method, a part of the stem will be
buried and covered with the soil. After some days, the adventitious roots develop;
eventually, they will be detached from the parent plant. Layering is the best mode for a
climbing rose, Forsythia, Rhododendron, jasmine, Bougainvillea and honeysuckle
 Grafting in plants
Grafting means a composite of
plants by joining the
different plant's shoot and root systems.
Terminologies:
Scion: The part of a grafted plant that will develop the shoot system on the stock.
Stock or rootstock: The part of a grafted plant that will develop the root system. Adventitious bud or
root: The bud or root are developed from any part of the shoot or root of the plant under favourable
environmental
conditions

Tissue Culture: The technique of developing new plants from a cell or tissue in a nutrient medium
under aseptic conditions. The cell or tissue is placed in a nutrient medium where it forms a mass
of cells called callus. This callus is then transferred to another nutrient medium where it
differentiates and forms a new plant.
Sexual Reproduction

When reproduction takes place as a result of the fusion between two gametes, one from each parent,
it is called sexual reproduction.

● This process of fusion between two gametes is called fertilization.

● The formation of gametes involves an exchange of chromosomal (genetic) fragments between
homologous chromosomes causing genetic recombination which leads to variation.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

It occurs mostly in flowering [Link] are the reproductive organ of plants.

● Pollen grains of a flower transfer to the stigma of the carpel of the same flower (Self-Pollination)
or to the carpel of another flower (Cross-Pollination).

● This transfer of pollensis achieved by agents like wind, water or animals. After pollination, the
pollen grains reach the egg cell in the form of a pollen tube.

● Fertilization. The fusion between the pollen grain and female egg cell. It occurs inside the ovary.
The zygote is produced in this process.

● The zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule develops a rough
coat and is converted into a seed.

● Ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form fruit, while the seed contains the future plant or embryo
which develops into a seedling under suitable conditions. This process is known as Germination.

The flowers may be bisexual i.e. having both stamens and carpels for example; Mustard China Rose
(Hibiscus).
The flower may be unisexual i.e. paving either stamens or carpels for example; Papaya, Watermelon

Pollination
The process of transfer of pollen grains from an anther to the stigma of the
flower is pollination. Two types of pollination are:

(i) Self-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower
or another flower of the same plant.

(ii) Cross-pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another
flower or another flower of a different plant of the same species. It generally takes place with the
help of some agents like insects, birds, wind and water.

Fertilization
Fertilization is the process of fusion of male and female gamete to form a zygote during sexual
reproduction. Pollination is followed by fertilisation in plants. The events are Pollen grains land on
the stigma of the ovary. Pollen tubes grow out of the pollen grains, travel through the style and
reach the ovary, through micropyle.

Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and a female germ cell (egg).
Pollen tube releases two male germ cells inside the ovule, one of them fuses with female germ cell
and forms a zygote which grows into the baby plant i.e. embryo, the fusion is known as syngamy.
The other male germ cell fuses with two polar nuclei, the process is known as triple fusion. So in
flowering plants two fusions take place during fertilisation. It is called double fertilisation.

Post-fertilisation changes: After fertilisation the following changes takes place in the flower. Zygote
divides several times and forms an embryo inside the ovule.
● The ovule develops a tough coat and changesinto the seed.
● The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit.
● Petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma shrivel and fall off.

Seed and its parts: The advantage of seed is that it protects the future plant i.e. embryo.
Seed has two parts: Cotyledons and Embryo Cotyledons store food for the future plant.
Embryo has two parts: plumule and radicle. Plumule develops into shoot and radicle develops into
root.

The process of development of a seedling from the embryo under appropriate conditions is known
as germination.

PUBERTY
Onset of puberty in human males is between 11 to 13 yrs of age, while in human females is between
10 to 12 yrs. of age. Puberty is associated with many physical, mental, emotional and psychological
changes in boys
and girls which occur slowly over a period of time. These are called secondary sexual characters.
For instance thick dark hair start growing in new parts of the body such as armpits and genital area
between the thighs. Thinner hair appear on legs, arms and face. Skin becomes oily and pimples may
appear on the face. Individuals become more conscious of their bodies become more independent,
more aggressive etc. In case of boys beard and mustache start appearing, voice begins to crack,
reproductive organs develop and
start producing releasing sperms.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

● Humans use a sexual mode of reproduction.
● It needs sexual maturation which includes the formation of the female germ cells, i.e., egg (ova)
in the female and sperm in the male partner and this period of sexual maturation is called Puberty.
● Human beings have a well-developed male and female reproductive system.
● The formation of the male germ cell (sperms) takes place in the testes (male reproductive organ).
Actually, a pair of testes are located inside scrotum situated outside the abdominal cavity. It is
meant to keep a relatively low temperature needed for the production of sperms by testes.

Testes release a male sex hormone called testosterone whose function is to:
● regulate the production of sperms;
● brings about changes in appearance seen in boys at the time of puberty; and
● the sperms along with the secretion of the prostate gland and seminal vesicle, together constitute
semen, which is released and made to enter into the female genital tract during Copulation

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male Reproductive System: Male reproductive system consists of the following components
● 1 pair of testes
● A system of ducts
● Epididymis
●Vas deferens or the sperm duct
● Urethra
● A system of glands
● Seminal vesicles
● Prostate gland
● A copulatory organ called a penis.

One pair of testes are present in a bag-like structure called scrotum which lies outside the
abdominal cavity, hence they are extra abdominal in position. This isso because the testes have to be
maintained at 1-3 degree lesser temperature than the body in order to produce functional sperms.

Functions of testes :
● To produce male gametes i.e. the sperms.
● To produce a male reproductive hormone called testosterone which is responsible for
producing sperms as well as secondary sexual characteristics in males.

Attached to each testis is a highly coiled tube called epididymis. The sperms are stored here and
they mature in the epididymis.
Each epididymis leads into the sperm duct or the vas-deferens.
Each vas-deferens rises up and enters into the abdominal cavity. It unites with the duct coming from
the urinary bladder to form a common duct called urethra which passes through the penis and opens
to the outside. Along the way the ducts of the three glands also open and pour their secretions into
the vas deferens

Function of the vas-deferens: It is meant for the passage of the sperms in the male body.
Functions of the glands: They produce different secretions which provide nutrition as well as
medium for locomotion to the sperms.

The secretions of the three glands along with the sperms is known as semen.
Function of the urethra: It is the common passage for both semen and urine from the body to the
outside.
Penis: It is the organ which is
used to introduce semen into
the female body. It is richly
supplied with blood vessels
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Female Reproductive System: It consists of the following components
Each ovary is almond shaped and present inside the abdominal cavity. At the time of birth each girl
child already contains thousands of immature ova. These ova start maturing only from the time of
puberty. Only one ovum is produced by one ovary in one month and each ovary releases an ovum in
alternate months.

The release of an ovum from the ovary into the abdominal cavity is known as ovulation.

Functions of ovary
● To produce and release ova
● To produce female reproductive hormones: estrogen and progesterone.

There are two fallopian tubes. The end lying close to the ovary has finger like structures called
fimbriae. The two fallopian tubes unite to form an elastic bag like structure called uterus(womb)
Function of the fallopian tubes: It is the site of fertilization between the male and the female
gametes and formation of the zygote early embryo.
The inner lining of the uterusisrichly supplied with blood vessels and is known as endometrium.
The narrow end of the uterus is called cervix.

Function of the uterus: The embryo formed in the fallopian tube comes down and gets attached to
the endometrium (implantation) and develops for the next nine months till the baby is delivered.

Vagina: The uterus opens into the vagina through the cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube through
which the baby is delivered at the end of nine months.

MENSTRUATION CYCLE
Menstruation: It is the loss of blood, mucous along with the unfertilized ovum and the ruptured
cells and tissues of the endometrium through the vagina of the female.

It is a 28-day cycle which occursin every reproductively active female (from puberty). The flow of
blood continues for 2 to 8 days.

If the ovum does not get fertilized, then the endometrium starts sloughing off and there is loss of
blood and mucous etc. through the vagina.
 In case the ovum gets fertilized, then the endometrium becomes thick and spongy for nourishing
the embryo and hence menstruation does
not occur. A lady with a developing embryo in her womb is termed as pregnant.

The beginning of menstruation at puberty is known as menarche. The stoppage of menstruation

when the woman is 45-55 yrs of age is called menopause.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Reproductive Health: Sexually transmitted diseases and birth control. A number of diseases occur
as a result of sexual intercourse if one of the partners is infected. These are known as sexually
transmitted diseases (STD’s).

They can be caused by bacteria for example;syphilis, gonorrhoea; or caused by a virusfor example;
HIV-AIDS, warts etc. The transmission of these diseases can be avoided by using birth control
measures such as wearing a condom during the sexual act.

METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION

Birth control measures: They can be mechanical, chemical and surgical.

Mechanical methods: These are used to prevent the passage of semen to the fallopian tube. The
semen gets collected in this and is not discharged into the vagina.
(i) Diaphragm: It is a thin rubber fixed over a flexible metal ring which is fitted over the cervix in
a woman’s body by a doctor.

(ii) Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (IUCD) or loop: It is inserted in the uterus and its
insertion causes certain secretion which preventsthe implantation of the embryo in the uterine wall.

Both methods (i) and (ii) cause side effects.

Chemical methods

● Use of spermicides: These are strong sperm-killing chemicals available in the form of creams,
jellies etc.
which are injected into the vagina just before copulation.

● Oral contraceptive pills: These are hormonal pills which prevent ovulation but do not stop
menstruation.

Surgical methods

● Vasectomy: It involves cutting and ligating the vas deferens in males.

● Tubectomy: It involves cutting and ligating Reproductive organs the

.
● Medical termination of pregnancy (MTP) or abortions is carried out to eliminate the
developing embryo. This practice can, however, be misused to carry out female foeticide which
involves the killing of the female foetus. It should be avoided at all cost as it disturbs the male-
female ratio in a population.