Siddharth Institute of Engineering & Technology Question Bank 2022-23

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Subject with Code: Mechatronics &Robotics (19ME0337) Course & Branch: B. Tech – ME
Year/ Sem: IV-B. Tech & I-Sem Regulation: R19

UNIT I
1. Define Mechatronics with elaborate definition. And give examples of mechatronics 12M
system.

Mechatronics is an interdisciplinary area of engineering that combines mechanical and

electrical engineering and computer science. A typical mechatronic system picks up
signals from the environment, processes them to generate output signals, transforming
them for example into forces, motions and actions.
Or
Mechatronics basically refers to mechanical electronic systems and normally described
as a synergistic combination of mechanics, electrical, electronics, computer and control
which, when combined, make possible the generation of simple, more economic, and
reliable systems.

Examples of mechatronic systems are robots, digitally controlled combustion engines,

machine tools with self-adaptive tools, contact-free magnetic bearings, automated guided
vehicles, etc. Typical for such a product is the high amount of system knowledge and
software that is necessary for its design. Furthermore, and this is most essential, software
has become an integral part of the product itself, necessary for its function and operation.
It is fully justified to say software has become an actual "machine element".
CNC machine is the best and basic example of application of Mechatronics in
manufacturing automation. Efficient operation of conventional machine tools such as
Lathes, milling machines, drilling machine is dependent on operator skill and training.
Also a lot of time is consumed in work part setting, tool setting and controlling the
process parameters viz. feed, speed, depth of cut. Thus conventional machining is slow

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and expensive to meet the challenges of frequently changing product/part shape and size.
Industrial robots are another example of application of Mechatronics in manufacturing.
Robots are general-purpose, re-programmable machines which respond to the sensory
signals received from the system environment. Based on these signals, robots carry out
programmed work or activity. They also take simple independent decisions and
communicate/interact with the other machines and the central computer. Robots are
widely employed in the following applications in manufacturing.
2. Explain the various components in mechatronics system with neat sketch. 12M
 Sensors: a device which detects or measures a physical property and records,
indicates, or otherwise responds to it.
 Actuators convert digital signals into physical or chemical quantities as required
to correct errors in meeting the required performance.
 Instrumentation subsystem. This involves all necessary signal-conditioning
(SC) circuits to interface actuators, sensors, and other devices to the control computer.

Fig. components in mechatronics system

 Control computer. Proper control of a process requires intense processing of
information representing a complex interplay between sensing the environmental
conditions that affect the outcome of the process, interpretation of the sensed values,
recognizing effect of these values on the integrity of the operation, and initiating a
response by signaling the actuators to take the necessary corrective actions.
Coordinating all these activities is the responsibility of the control computer, which
involves embedded microprocessor systems. it handles the flow of information
between the various components by integrating the software and hardware dedicated
to controlling the process in question.
The hardware, also referred to as the target system, consists of all computers needed
to manage the inputs and outputs of the mechatronic device. This includes sensors,
actuators, mechanical components, power supplies, control computer, and the Signal
Conditioning circuits interfacing the computer with the sensors and actuators.
Input/output Signal conditioning and interfacing: provide connection between
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the control system circuits and the input/output devices. Discrete circuits,
amplifiers, filters, A/D, D/A, power transistor etc.
 Digital devices: controls the system. Logic circuits, micro controller, SBC, PLC
etc
 Graphic Display: provide visual feed back to users. LEDs, Digital Displays, LCD,
CRT
3. (a) What is evaluation of mechatronics? 6M

 Primary Level : Integrates electrical signaling with mechanical action at the

basic control level for e.g. fluid valves and relay switches
 Secondary Level: Integrates microelectronics into electrically controlled devices
for e.g. cassette tape player.
 Tertiary Level: Incorporates advanced control strategy using microelectronics,
microprocessors and other application specific integrated circuits for e.g.
microprocessor based electrical motor used for actuation purpose in robots.
 Quaternary Level: This level attempts to improve smartness a step ahead by
introducing intelligence (artificial neural network and fuzzy logic) and fault detection
and isolation (F.D.I.) capability into the system.

(b) List the various benefits and applications of mechatronics. 6M

Benefits:

Applications
• Household
• Refrigerator, Washing m/c, Microwave
• Automotive
• Power steering, Air conditioner
• Shop floor
• Tool monitoring system, Automated guided vehicle, Conveyor system

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Bottle filing plant.
4 (a) Define control system. Explain about control systems. 6M
A control system is a system of devices or set of devices, that manages, commands,
directs or regulates the behavior of other devices or systems to achieve desired results. In
other words, the definition of a control system can be simplified as a system, which
controls other systems. As the human civilization is being modernized day by day the
demand for automation is increasing accordingly. Automation highly requires control of
devices.
Practically every aspect of our day-to-day life is affected less or more by some
control system. A bathroom toilet tank, a refrigerator, an air conditioner, a geezer, an
automatic iron, an automobile all are control system. These systems are also used in
industrial processes for more output. We find control systems in the quality control of
products, weapons system, transportation systems, power system, space technology,
robotics and many more.
Features of a Control System
The main feature of a control system is that there should be a clear mathematical
relationship between input and output of the system. When the relation between input
and output of the system can be represented by a linear proportionality, the system is
called a linear control system. Again when the relationship between input and output
cannot be represented by single linear proportionality, rather the input and output are
related by some non-linear relation, the system is referred to as a non-linear control
system.
There are four basic elements of a typical motion control system. These are the
controller, amplifier, actuator, and feedback
The controller section of the AC drive is the brain if the system. It typically
consists of a microprocessor based CPU and memory that is used to process data once it
is collected and stored. This controller section of the AC drive will process information
received from the inputs of the drive and also from the feedback signals that will usually
be a representation of the position or speed of the actuator.
The amplifier section of the drive receives the commands from the control
section. The amplifier then generates the power signal necessary for the actuator to drive
the load with the correct speed and direction. The amplifier section of the AC drive is
usually able to be further broken down into three sections of its own.
(b) Illustrate the open loop control system with neat sketch in detail. 6M

Open Loop Control System:

A control system in which the control action is totally independent of output of the
system then it is called open loop control system. A manual control system is also an
open loop control system. The figure below shows a control system block diagram of an
open loop control system in which process output is totally independent of the controller
action.

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Fig. Open Loop Control System

Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System

1. Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your hand
under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
2. Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set time
irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3. ead Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.
4. Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for pre adjusted
time only.
5. Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre-adjusted
time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
6. Light Switch – Lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of light is
required or not.
7. Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of output
volume level.
5 (a) Describe the closed loop control system with neat sketch. 6M
A closed loop control system is a set of mechanical or electronic devices that
automatically regulates a process variable to a desired state or set point without human
interaction. Closed loop control systems contrast with open loop control systems, which
require manual input.
A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a
control system which uses the concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has
one or more feedback loops (hence its name) or paths between its output and its input.
The reference to ―feedback‖, simply means that some portion of the output is returned
―back‖ to the input to form part of the systems excitation.

Fig. Closed Loop Control System

Closed-loop systems are designed to automatically achieve and maintain the
desired output condition by comparing it with the actual condition. It does this by
generating an error signal which is the difference between the output and the reference

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input. In other words, a ―closed-loop system‖ is a fully automatic control system in
which its control action being dependent on the output in some way.
So for example, consider our electric clothes dryer from the previous Open-loop
tutorial. Suppose we used a sensor or transducer (input device) to continually monitor the
temperature or dryness of the clothes and feed a signal relating to the dryness back to the
controller as shown below.
This sensor would monitor the actual dryness of the clothes and compare it with (or
subtract it from) the input reference. The error signal (error = required dryness – actual
dryness) is amplified by the controller, and the controller output makes the necessary
correction to the heating system to reduce any error. For example if the clothes are too
wet the controller may increase the temperature or drying time. Likewise, if the clothes
are nearly dry it may reduce the temperature or stop the process so as not to overheat or
burn the clothes, etc.,
(b) Distinguish between GPOS and RTOS. 6M

General-Purpose Operating Real-Time Operating System

System (GPOS) (RTOS)

It used for desktop PC and laptop. It is only applied to the embedded

application.

Process-based Scheduling. Time-based scheduling used like round-

robin scheduling.

Interrupt latency is not considered as Interrupt lag is minimal, which is

important as in RTOS. measured in a few microseconds.

No priority inversion mechanism is The priority inversion mechanism is

present in the system. current. So it cannot modify by the
system.

Kernel's operation may or may not be Kernel's operation can be preempted.

preempted.

Priority inversion remain unnoticed No predictability guarantees

6. (a) How does a GUI work? And what are the benefits of GUI? 6M
A GUI (graphical user interface) is a system of interactive visual components for
computer software. A GUI displays objects that convey information, and represent
actions that can be taken by the user. The objects change color, size, or visibility when
the user interacts with them.
GUI objects include icons, cursors, and buttons. These graphical elements are
sometimes enhanced with sounds, or visual effects like transparency and drop shadows.
A GUI is considered to be more user-friendly than a text-based command-line
interface, such as MS-DOS, or the shell of Unix-like operating systems.

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How does a GUI work?
A GUI uses windows, icons, and menus to carry out commands, such as opening,
deleting, and moving files. Although a GUI operating system is primarily navigated using
a mouse, a keyboard can also be used via keyboard shortcuts or the arrow keys.
As an example, if you wanted to open a program on a GUI system, you would
move the mouse pointer to the program's icon and double-click it.
Benefits of GUI:
Unlike a command-line operating system or CUI, like Unix or MS-DOS, GUI
operating systems are much easier to learn and use because commands do not need to be
memorized. Additionally, users do not need to know any programming languages.
Because of their ease of use and more modern appearance, GUI operating systems have
come to dominate today's market.
(b) Identify the components of real time operating system and explain them? 6M
Real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended to serve real
time application that process data as it comes in, mostly without buffer delay. The full
form of RTOS is Real time operating system.
In a RTOS, Processing time requirement are calculated in tenths of seconds
increments of time. It is time-bound system that can be defined as fixed time constraints.
In this type of system, processing must be done inside the specified constraints.
Otherwise, the system will fail.
Components of RTOS: Here, are important Component of RTOS
The Scheduler: This component of RTOS tells that in which order, the tasks can be
executed which is generally based on the priority.
Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): It is a number of multiple different tasks that can
be handled by the RTOS so that parallel processing can be done.
Function Library: It is an important element of RTOS that acts as an interface that helps
you to connect kernel and application code. This application allows you to send the
requests to the Kernel using a function library so that the application can give the desired
results.

Fig. Components of real time operating system

Memory Management: this element is needed in the system to allocate memory to
every program, which is the most important element of the RTOS.
Fast dispatch latency: It is an interval between the termination of the task that can be
identified by the OS and the actual time taken by the thread, which is in the ready queue
that has started processing.
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User-defined data objects and classes: RTOS system makes use of programming
languages like C or C++, which should be organized according to their operation.
7. List out the displacement transducers? Explain with neat sketch any one of 12M
displacement transducer.
Most of displacement transducers are classified as resistive, capacitive, inductive, and
ultrasonic, according to their principle of operation.
Displacement:
•Strain-gauged element
•Eddy current proximity sensors
•Inductive proximity switch
• Capacitive Transducer.
 Linear Voltage Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Piezoelectric Transducer.
 Photo-Electric Transducers.
 Hall effect sensors
Displacement transducer : Strain Gauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied
load to the original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the
element. Therefore, we can say, ∆R/R α ε;
∆R/R = G ε
Where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general,
the value of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order
of 100Ω

Fig. Strain Gauges

Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the
equation. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure. These
foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are
bonded to a backing material plastic (polyimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced
epoxy. The strain gauges are secured to the work piece by using epoxy.
As the work piece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of
strain gauge element changes. This change in resistance can be detected by a using a
Wheatstone‘s resistance bridge.
In the balanced bridge we can have a relation
,
R2 / R 1 = R x / R3

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Where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R 2 is balancing/adjustable resistor; R1
and R3 are known constant value resistors.
Applications of strain gauges
Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on
machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue
testing, proof testing, residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement,
bending and deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and
strain measurement. Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and
safety in automotive. In particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine
tools, hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.
8. (a) Explain the functions of a strain gauge element with neat sketch. 6M
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load to
the original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element.
Therefore, we can say, ∆R/R α ε;
∆R/R = G ε
Where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general,
the value of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of
100Ω.
Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the
equation. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure. These
foils are made of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) and are
bonded to a backing material plastic (polyimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced
epoxy. The strain gauges are secured to the work piece by using epoxy.
As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of
strain gauge element changes. This change in resistance can be detected by a using a
Wheatstone‘s resistance bridge as shown in Figure.
In the balanced bridge we can have a relation,
R2 / R 1 = R x / R3
Where Rx is resistance of strain gauge element, R 2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1
and R3 are known constant value resistors.

Fig. Wheatstone’s resistance bridge

(b) Describe pneumatic sensor with neat sketch. 6M

Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the
proximity of an object close to it. The displacement and proximity are transformed

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into change in air pressure.

Fig. Working of pneumatic sensor

Fig. shows a schematic of construction and
working of such a sensor. It comprises of three ports. Low pressure air is allowed
to escape through port A. In the absence of any obstacle / object, this low pressure
air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in the port B. However when an
object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output
port B. This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger
a switch. These sensors are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC
machine tools.
9. Classify thermal expansion methods and describe electrical resistance sensor of 12M
RTD with neat sketch

Thermal expansion sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors

are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding,
metal cutting etc.
RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to
change in its temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows
a linear relationship as shown in Figure. The correlation is

Rt = R 0 (1 + αT)
where Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C) and R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C and α
is the constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The
sensor is usually made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0 °C

Figure shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a

Wheatstone bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected
by a sheath. A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the
temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the
Wheatstone bridge.

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Fig. Construction of a RTD

RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil. They are generally made
of metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys.

10 (a) What are the basic methods of force measurement? Elaborate elastic force devices 6M
. with neat sketch.
Basic methods of force measurement

1. Balancing it against the known gravitational force as a standard mass, either

directly or through a system of levers.
2. Measuring the acceleration of a body of known mass to which the unknown force
is applied.
3. Balancing it against a magnetic force developed by interaction of a current
carrying coil and a magnet.
4. Transducing the force to a fluid pressure and then measuring the pressure.

Elastic force meter (or) Proving Rings:

When a steel ring is subjected to a force across its diameter, it deflects. This deflection
is proportional to the applied force when calibrated.

Operation:
The force to be measured is applied to the external bosses of the proving ring. Due to
the applied force, the ring changes in diameter. This deflection of the ring is
proportional to the applied force.
At this stage, the reed is plucked to obtain a vibrating motion. When the reed is
vibrating, the micrometer wheel is turned until the micrometer contact moves forward
and makes a noticeable damping of the vibrating reed.

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Fig. Proving Rings

Now the micrometer reading is noted which is a measure of deflection of the ring. The
device is calibrated to get a measure of force in terms of deflection of the proving ring.
(b) Discuss the selection criteria for sensor? 6M

1. Range: Difference between Maximum and Minimum value which can be sensed by
the sensor. What is the minimum value you need to sense? What is the maximum
value you need to sense?

2. Resolution: The smallest change which can be sensed by the sensor. High is good
but not always. If it is too high, it would pick up even very minute fluctuations which
would then require additional processing.

3. Sensitivity: Ratio of change in output to a unit change in the input. Again, high is
good, but too high could be a problem. Also, higher the sensitivity, more will be the
cost in most cases.

4. Error: Difference between the Measured Value and True Value. You want this
value to be low. All sensors have a margin of error. Does you application allow you
to have that margin of error?

5. Accuracy: It is inversely proportional to Error, i.e. How close the sensor reading is
to the True Value. (Should be high).

6. Precision: Ability to give/reproduce accurate value repeatedly. If a sensor is giving

different values for the same physical conditions, it is not a good choice.

7. Response Time

8. Signal-to-noise Ratio
9. Calibration
10. Cost
11. Environment
12. Flexibility
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UNIT II
1. Define actuator. Actuators plays a primary role in mechatronics system explains 12M
it.
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve.
An actuator is a part of a device or machine that helps it to achieve physical
movements by converting energy, often electrical, air, or hydraulic, ..
Role:
An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for moving and
controlling a mechanism or system, for example by opening a valve. In simple terms,
it is a "mover". ... When it receives a control signal, an actuator responds by
converting the source's energy into mechanical motion.
Typically actuators are considered as only energy conversion devices. For
example an electrical motor converts electrical power to rotary motion. Similarly a
hydraulic motor will convert hydraulic power (in the form of hydraulic fluid flow and
pressure) into rotary motion.
Different Types of Actuators:
Actuators can create two main types of motion: linear and rotary.
1. Linear Actuators:
2. Rotary Actuators: rotary actuators create a circular motion.
3. According to energy source:
 Electric actuators
 Hydraulic actuators
 Pneumatic actuators
 Electromechanical actuators:
 Electrohydraulic actuators:
 Thermal and Magnetic Actuators
 Mechanical Actuators
2. Illustrate the characteristics of actuator? 12M

The key actuator performance characteristics are as follows:

1. Precise, repeatable positioning typically better than 0.15% of span.
2. The ability to start and stop instantaneously without dead time or position
overshoots.
3. Continuous duty rating without limitations on the number of starts per minute.
4. Perform consistently and unaffected by load.
5. Rugged industrial design capable of operating in difficult environments without
an effect on performance.
6. Minimal periodic maintenance required.
An actuator designed with these characteristics provides two extremely important
advantages:
1. An ability to follow the demand signal from the controller precisely and
instantly. This ensures that the actuator responds exactly as directed by the
controller. Thus, the actuator is not the limiting factor in the control loop and

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the controller can function to its optimal levels.
2. A high degree of maintenance-free reliability. An actuator designed to function
as outlined above by default is more rugged than typical actuators. By design,
then, it is capable of a much higher degree of reliability.

3. (a) How do you classify the actuation system? Draw actuation system functional 6M
diagram?

An actuator is a machine part that initiates movements by receiving feedback from

a control signal. Once it has power, the actuator creates specific motions depending
on the purpose of the machine.
Different Types of Actuators:
Actuators can create two main types of motion: linear and rotary.
Linear Actuators: linear actuators are devices that produce movement within a
straight path.
Rotary Actuators: rotary actuators create a circular motion.
According to energy source:
 Electric actuators
 Uses electric motors to actuate individual joints
 Preferred drive system in today's robots
 Hydraulic actuators
 Uses hydraulic pistons and rotary vane actuators
 Noted for their high power and lift capacity
 Pneumatic actuators
 Typically limited to smaller robots and simple material transfer
applications
 Electromechanical actuators:
 These actuators convert electric signals into rotary or linear movements
and may even be capable of a combination of both.
 Electrohydraulic actuators:
 This type of actuator is also powered electrically but gives movement to
a hydraulic accumulator.
 Thermal and Magnetic Actuators
 Mechanical Actuators

Fig. Actuation system functional

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Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for
transforming the output of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling
action on a machine or device.
(b) List the limitations of actuators. 6M

Limitations of Pneumatic Actuators

1. Distance to the source of energy is limited (dead time problems)
2. Actuating force of spring loaded units is limited
3. Small systems are normally not economical
Limitations of Electrical Actuators
1. Larger actuating forces difficult to achieve
2. Limited stroking velocity
3. High maintenance costs
Limitations of Hydraulic Actuators
1. Distance to the source of energy is limited
2. Costly control
3. Considerable maintenance requirements
4. (a) Elaborate components of an hydraulic system with neat sketch. 6M

Hydraulic System: Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies

employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-
generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful work.
Hydraulic systems are used for transmission of power through the medium of
hydraulic oil. The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal‘s law which says
that ―the pressure in a fluid at rest is transmitted uniformly in all directions‖.
The fluid medium used is hydraulic oil, which may be mineral oil or water or
combinations. This area is also known as oil hydraulics.
Hydraulic System Components
The hydraulic actuator:
It is a device used to convert fluid power into mechanical power to do useful work.
The actuator may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary type (e.g.,
hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion, respectively.
The pressurized hydraulic fluid delivered by the hydraulic pump is supplied to the
actuators, which converts the energy of the fluid into mechanical energy. This
mechanical energy is used to get the work done.
Hydraulic Pump : It is used to force the fluid from the reservoir to the rest of the
hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Importance of Pump :
1. They convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
2. The Volumetric efficiency of the pump is relatively high
3. They have high-performance characteristics under varying speed and pressure
requirements
4. Pumps used to generate high pressure in the hydraulic system

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Valves: Valves are used to control the direction, pressure, and flow rate of a fluid
flowing through the circuit.
Motor 1 – Off 2 – Forward 3– Return 3 2 1 Load Direction control valve Pump Oil
tank Filter Actuator Pressure regulator.
External power supply (motor): is required to drive the pump.
Oil Tank or Reservoir:
This is an oil storage tank in which hydraulic oil is stored. The oil passes through
various pipelines and after doing useful work in actuator; the oil returns to the oil tank.
In the regions of low temperature, oil heaters are attached to air tanks.
Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually hydraulic oil.
Pipelines: Pipelines (Fluid Conducting elements): It is the functional connection for
oil flow in the hydraulic system. The efficiency of oil flow is greatly influenced by the
physical characteristics of piping systems.
Filters
It is used to remove any foreign particles so as keep the fluid system clean and
efficient, as well as avoid damage to the actuator and valves.
Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required level of pressure in the
hydraulic fluid.
(b) Describe the basic components of pneumatic system with neat diagram? 6M

Pneumatics is the science and technology of pressurized air—using piped,

compressed air (or a similar gas, such as nitrogen) to transmit force and energy.
Pneumatic systems use air as the medium which is abundantly available and can be
exhausted into the atmosphere after completion of the assigned task.
Pneumatic machines need five basic components to make, store, control, move, and
use compressed air:
1. A compressor—makes air.
2. A reservoir (or receiver)—stores air.
3. One or more valves—control air.
4. A circuit—moves air between the other components.

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5. An actuator or motor—uses air to do something.

a) Air filters: These are used to filter out the contaminants from the air.
b)Compressor: Compressed air is generated by using air compressors. Air
compressors are either diesel or electrically operated. Based on the requirement of
compressed air, suitable capacity compressors may be used.
c) Air cooler: During compression operation, air temperature increases.
Therefore coolers are used to reduce the temperature of the compressed air.

Fig. Components of pneumatic system

d) Dryer: The water vapor or moisture in the air is separated from the air by using a
dryer.
e) Control Valves: Control valves are used to regulate, control and monitor for
control of direction flow, pressure etc.
f) Air Actuator: Air cylinders and motors are used to obtain the required
movements of mechanical elements of pneumatic system.
g) Electric Motor: Transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy. It is used
to drive the compressor.
h) Receiver tank: The compressed air coming from the compressor is stored in the
air

5. (a) What are the functions of mechanical actuation system? 6M

Mechanical Actuators are used as a mechanism to translate mechanical motion (often

rotary) into linear motion or with the help of gearing into rotary motion at a different
speed. These actuators are typically part of a larger system which includes a power
drive, mechanical interconnects, and feedback devices to control the motion of
multiple devices.

Fig. Mechanical actuation system

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Mechanical actuation systems mainly consist of mechanisms. If a number of rigid
bodies are assembled in such a way that the motion of one causes constrained and
predictable motions of the others. It is called mechanism. Thus a mechanism transmits
and modifies a motion. Mechanisms can be used for any of the following purposes:
1. They may transform linear motion into rotational motion as in the case of internal
combustion engines where the reciprocating motion of the piston is transformed
into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
2. They may transform a rotary motion into a translating motion as in the case of a
cam and follower mechanism where rotational motion of the cam is converted into
translational movement of the follower.
3. They may transform a motion in one direction into a motion in another direction at
right angle to the first, as in the case of a bevel gear and worm gear drives
Various mechanical elements used in the mechanisms are linkages, cams, gear trains,
rack and pinion, chains, belt drives, ratcher and pawl, bearings etc.,
The mechanisms might be used to provide the following functions:
1. Force amplifications by using mechanical elements such as levers
2. Change magnitude and direction of speed by using gear trains.
3. Transfer axis of the rotation using a worm gear, bevel gear and or timing belt.
(b) Elucidate the working of timing belt. What happens if the timing belt breaks? 6M
A timing belt is a toothed belt that connects the engine crankshaft to the camshaft
or camshafts as you can see in the picture. A timing belt synchronizes the camshaft to
the crankshaft position, so the valves will open and close at the proper timing in
relation to the position of the pistons.
The camshafts rotate at exactly 1/2 speed of the crankshaft; meaning two
revolutions of the crankshaft are equal to one revolution of the camshaft.
In some engines a timing belt can also drive additional components such as a
water pump, balance shaft, intermediate shaft, injection pump and an oil pump. A
balance shaft, an intermediate shaft and an injection pump must also be synchronised
with a crankshaft.
To work properly a timing belt needs to be under certain tension that is controlled
by a timing belt tensioner.
What happens if the timing belt breaks:
If a timing belt breaks, the engine will no longer work. If a timing belt breaks
while driving in an interference engine, the camshaft stops turning leaving some of the
engine valves in the open position. The heavier crankshaft will continue rotating by
inertia, moving pistons up and down. This will cause the pistons to strike the valves
that left open. This may result in a heavy damage to the engine with broken or bent
valves, damaged pistons and, possibly, destroyed cylinder head and block.
6. (a) Explain signal conditioning? Categorize the various processes occur in signal 6M
conditioning.
Signal conditioning is one of the most important components of any data
acquisition system. It is the interface between real-world analog signals and the rest
of the system. A signal conditioner supplies essential circuit elements between the
sensor and the data acquisition system.

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Signal conditioner performs operations on signals to convert them to us a form
suitable for use by another component.
Most analog signals require some form of preparation before they can be digitized.
Signal conditioning is the manipulation of a signal in a way that prepares it for the
next stage of processing.
The input to a signal conditioner is normally the output from a sensor that is
usually described in the form of an analog signal.
The analog signal is continuous and time varying. The signals from sensors may
not be in the suitable form and will usually be in the millivolt range.
In general signal undergoes transformation when it passes through different
processing, transmission or storing devices.
Therefore, a signal can not only be distorted and weakened, but also voluntarily
transformed to mitigate background noise as it moves.
From this prospective, the operation process performed by a signal conditioner
include:
Various processes
1. Isolation and impedance conversion
2. Noise reduction
3. Amplification
4. Linearization and conversion
For example, thermocouple signals have very small voltage levels that must be
amplified before they can be digitized. Other sensors, such as resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), thermistors, strain gages, and accelerometers, require excitation to
operate. All of these preparation technologies are forms of signal conditioning.
(b) Describe about electrical actuation system 6M
An electric actuator is a mechanical device used to convert electricity into kinetic
energy in either a single linear or rotary motion. It automates damper or valve in
order to increase process efficiency and complexity. Designs for electric actuators
are based on the specific tasks they accomplish within the processes for which
they‘re intended, and they can vary in both dimension and size.
There are now more applications for electric actuators due to the movement toward
massively increased decentralization taking place in automation technology. New
process controllers can now be equipped on last-generation electric actuators, which
makes it simpler to meet recently updated automation standards. Preserve user
control over the process even in the event of power loss, using electric actuators is
now safer than ever before.
Main Components of an Electric Actuator
The motor of an electric actuator can operate on any voltage and is used across
many different industries. The most common voltages used in single-phase motors
are
 115 VAC
 24 VAC
 12 VDC
 24 VDC

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 208 VAC
 230 VAC
In addition to these options, three-phase motors also use voltages of 230 VAC and
460 VAC.
An actuator‘s brake is mounted on top of the motor. It‘s responsible for stopping the
media from forcing the valve open when it should be closed by locking the motor
rotor in position when not in use.
The motor start capacitor is the third main component of an electric actuator with
AC motor. It gives the motor enough power to start. Electric actuators with DC
motors do not require a capacitor.
The final critical component of an electric actuator is the two single-pole, double-
throw (SPDT) end of travel limit switches. One is for the closed position, and the
other is for the open position. These switches provide the adequate number of
electrical contacts in the immediate, closed, and open positions.
Applications:
Electric actuators appear in a number of industries. Typically, they‘re used in
industrial applications associated with manufacturing valves, pumps, and motors.
They most commonly automate industrial valves, and many types of technical
process plants use them, including:
 Upstream, midstream, and downstream oil and gas plants
 Wastewater treatment plants
 Power plants
 Food and beverage plants
 Farming and agricultural plants
 Pulp and paper plants
7. (a) Write the function of resistors and draw symbol of fixed resistor with ANSI 6M
standard.
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to
reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements,
and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.
Functions of a resistor.
 A resistor is responsible for dissipating power in the form of heat.
 In electronics, a resistor is often used to control the current. Resistors are
needed to prevent short circuits.
 In the power system analysis, the resistors are not searched. This is logical
because the resistors cause a loss of power in the form of heat.
 Each element that conducts electricity has a resistance. The zero resistance can
only be reached at absolute zero.
ANSI standard:

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(b) Draw the protection circuit and explain it with few features? 6M

Primary function of the protective system is to detect and isolate all failed or faulted
components as quickly as possible, thereby minimizing the disruption to the
remainder of the electric system.
Circuit protection is mainly to protect components in electronic circuits from over-
voltage, over-current, surge, electromagnetic interference and other circumstances
without damage.
Circuit protection components used are more than a simple glass tube fuse in the
past, the usual protection devices are varistors, TVS, gas discharge tube. Circuit
protection has evolved into a diverse field of emerging electronic components.
Few features:
Listed below are some of descriptions of the components‘ role. Electronic
component is as following:
Resistor

Resistance in the circuit is stated with "R". Resistors in the circuit's main functions
are shunt, current limiting, partial pressure, bias, etc.
Capacitor
Capacitance in the circuit generally is expressed with "C" . Capacitor is composed of
two pieces of metal film with insulating material in the middle. The characteristics
of the capacitor is mainly isolate DC and through AC.

The size of the capacitor capacity is the size of the electrical energy that can be
stored. The blocking effect of the capacitor on the AC signal is called capacitive
reactance, which is related to the frequency and capacitance of the AC signal.
8. (a) How does capacitor works? Elucidate the capacitor basic configuration? 6M

 A capacitor is a device capable of storing energy in a form of an electric

charge.
 Compared to a same size battery, a capacitor can store much smaller amount of
energy, around 10 000 times smaller, but useful enough for so many circuit
designs.
 A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a dielectric.
 The dielectric can be made of many insulating materials such as air, glass,
paper, plastic etc.

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 First, note that a metal typically has an equal amount of positively and
negatively charged particles, which means it‘s electrically neutral.
 If connect a power source or a battery to the metal plates of the capacitor, a
current will try to flow, or the electrons from the plate connected to the
positive lead of the battery will start moving to the plate connected to the
negative lead of the battery.
 However, because of the dielectric between the plates, the electrons won‘t be
able to pass through the capacitor, so they will start accumulating on the plate.
 After a certain number of electronics accumulated on the plate, the battery will
have insufficient energy to push any new electronics to enter the plate because
of the repulsion of those electronics which are already there.

Fig. Capacitor basic configuration

 At this point, the capacitor is actually fully charged. The first plate has
developed a net negative charge, and the second plate has developed an equal
net positive charge, creating an electric field with an attractive force between
them which holds the charge of the capacitor.
(b) What is filter? Classify the filters in detail. 6M
Answer:
A filter is a circuit capable of passing (or amplifying) certain frequencies while
attenuating other frequencies. Thus, a filter can extract important frequencies from
signals that also contain undesirable or irrelevant frequencies.
Four Major Types of Filters
 The four primary types of filters include the low-pass filter, the high-pass
filter, the band-pass filter, and the notch filter (or the band-reject or band-stop
filter). However, that the terms "low" and "high" do not refer to any absolute
values of frequency, but rather they are relative values with respect to the
cutoff frequency.
 Low-pass filters cut off all high frequency parts of a signal, lower frequencies
can pass the filter. Low-pass filters are closely related to smoothing
procedures, such as moving averages.
 High-pass filters cut off the low parts of the spectrum and let the high
frequencies pass. High-pass filters are related to the first derivative of a
function.

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 Band-pass filters are formed by a combination of low-pass and high-pass
filters so that only frequencies within a certain range (band) can pass the filter.

Notch filters remove a certain band from the frequency spectrum and are
also formed by a combination of low- and high-pass filters. Please note that
the characteristic frequency responses shown above are only theoretical
curves - in reality the filter response functions do not show infinite steepness
at the cutoff frequencies, nor do they exhibit a smooth transfer characteristic.
9. Explain analog to digital converter and digital to analog converter with neat 12M
diagrams.

Analog-to digital converter (ADC) and digital-to-converter (DAC) are used to

interface a computer to the analog world so that the computer can monitor and
control a physical variable

FiG: Interfacing with the analog world using Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
and Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC).
Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
The transducer‘s electrical analog output serves as the analog input to the ADC. The
ADC converts this analog input to a digital output. This digital output consists of a
number of bits that represent the value of the analog input.
The digital representation of the analog vales is transmitted from the ADC to the
digital computer, which stores the digital value and processes it according to a
program of instructions that it is executing.
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FIG: Basic diagram of ADC

1. The START COMMAND pulse initiates the operation.
2. At a rate determined by the clock, the control unit continually modifies the binary
number that is stored in the register.
3. The binary number in the register is converted to an analog voltage, VAX, by the
DAC.
4. The comparator compares VAX with the analog input VA. As long as VAX <
VA1 the comparator output stays HIGH. When VAX exceeds VA by at least an
amount = VT ( threshold voltage), the comparator output goes LOW and stops the
process of modifying the register number. At this point, VAX is a close
approximation to VA. The digital number in the register, which is the digital
equivalent of VAX, is also the approximate digital equivalent of VA1 within the
resolution and accuracy of the system.
5. The control logic activates the end-of-conversion signal, EOC, when the
conversion is complete.
Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)
The purpose of a digital-to-analog converter is to convert a binary word to a
proportional current or voltage.
This digital output from the computer is connected to a DAC, which converts it to a
proportional analog voltage or current. For example, the computer might produce a
digital output ranging from 0000000 to 11111111, which the DAC converts to a
voltage ranging from 0 to 10V.
Basically, D/A conversion is the process of taking a value represented in digital code
(such as straight binary or BCD) and converting it to a voltage or current which is
proportional to the digital value. Fig. shows the symbol for a typical 4-bit D/A
converter. Now, we will examine the various input/output relationships.

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FIG: Four bit DAC with voltage output.
The digital inputs D,C,B, and A are usually derived from the output register of a
digital system. The 24 = 16 different binary numbers represented by these 4 bits for
each input number, the D/A converter output voltage is a unique value. In fact, for
this case, the analog output voltage Vout is equal in volts to the binary number.
In general,
Analog output = K × digital input
where K is the proportionality factor and it is constant value for a given DAC. The
analog output can of course be a voltage or current. When it is a voltage, K will be
in voltage units, and when the output is current, K will be in current units. For the
DAC of K=1 V, so that
VOUT = (1 V) × digital input
We can use this to calculate VOUT for any value of digital input. For example, with a
digital input of 11002 = 1210, we obtain VOUT = 1V × 12 = 12V
10. (a) What is coupling? Classify the couplings in detail. 6M

The term Coupling occurs in multi stage amplifiers and refers to the way in which
the output of one stage is connected to the input of next stage. There are mainly
three types of coupling which are

Transformer coupling
1. Capacitive coupling
2. DC coupling
3. Opto coupling
Direct coupling:
A direct coupling is one in which the output of one stage of amplifier is connected to
the input of second stage in such a way to allow even DC signals from one stage to
another. The frequency response of the direct coupled amplifier is similar to low pass
filter and is characterized by rise time.
Capacitive coupling:
A capacitive coupling is one in which the output of one stage of amplifier is connected
to the input of second stage through a capacitor. This is the most frequently used
coupling. The coupling capacitor blocks DC signal propagation across the amplifier
and allows only AC signals. This makes the circuit analysis and design simplified and
each stage can be considered as isolated as far as DC signals are considered. Also it
avoids the amplifiers going into DC saturation.
DC Coupling: As no coupling devices are used, the coupling of the amplifier stages is
done directly and hence called as Direct coupled amplifier.
Opto-coupler is an electronic component that transfers electrical signals between two
isolated circuits. Opto-coupler also called Opto-isolator, photo coupler or optical
isolator.
(b) What is the function of protection scheme? Describe working principle of circuit 6M
breaker with neat sketch.

• A circuit breaker is a switching device that interrupts the abnormal or fault

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current.
• It is a mechanical device that disturbs the flow of high magnitude (fault)
current and in additions performs the function of a switch.
• The circuit breaker is mainly designed for closing or opening of an electrical
circuit, thus protects the electrical system from damage
• An electronic circuit breaker basically consists of automatically operated
switch controlled by the feedback from the load.
• The switch is automatically closed for a time and the switch is then
automatically turned on after that certain amount of time.
• The switch can be a power electronic switch like an SCR or an
electromechanical switch like a relay, which is controlled by any current
sensing element like a resistor.
This ultra-fast circuit breaking device uses a series resistor to sense the current and
while it exceeds the set value, the corresponding voltage drop (across the series
resistance) also increases.
Working Principle of Circuit Breaker:

• Circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts.

• These contacts are touching each other and carrying the current under normal
conditions when the circuit is closed.
• When the circuit breaker is closed, the current carrying contacts, called the
electrodes, engaged each other under the pressure of a spring.
• During the normal operating condition, the arms of the circuit breaker can be
opened or closed for a switching and maintenance of the system.
• To open the circuit breaker, only a pressure is required to be applied to a
trigger
• Whenever a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coil of the breaker
gets energized and the moving contacts are getting apart from each other by
some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.

UNIT III
1. (a) How does micro controller works? 6M

Microcontrollers are embedded inside devices to control the actions and features of a
product. Hence, they can also be referred to as embedded controllers. They run one
specific program and are dedicated to a single task. They are low power devices with
dedicated input devices and small LED or LCD display outputs. Microcontrollers

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can take inputs from the device they controlling and retain control by sending the
device signals to different parts of the device. A good example is a TV‘s
microcontroller. It takes input from a remote control and delivers its output on the
TV screen.
Like traditional computers, microcontrollers rely on different features to get
their job done. These features include:
RAM:
RAM is used to store data as well as other results that are created when the
microcontroller is at work. However, it does not store the data permanently and its
memory is lost once the power supply to the microcontroller is cut. The RAM hosts
a special functions register (SFR). This is a pre-configured memory offered by the
microcontroller‘s manufacturer. It controls how particular circuits like the serial
communication and analog-to-digital converter behave.
ROM:
The special tasks that microcontrollers carry out as programs are stored in the ROM
(Read Only Memory) and never change. ROM allows microcontrollers to know that
certain actions should trigger particular responses. For instance, ROM allows the
TV‘s microcontroller to know that pressing a channel button should change the
display on your screen.
Program counter: The program counter allows the minicomputer to execute
programs based on a series of different programmed instructions.
Inputs and outputs: Unlike a computer that you control with the help of a mouse
or keyboard, microcontrollers have unique ways of interacting with humans through
inputs and outputs.
(b) What are the elements of a microcontroller 6M
Microcontroller consists of the following components.
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. Program Memory (ROM – Read Only Memory)
3. Data Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory)
4. Timers and Counters.
5. I/O Ports (I/O – Input/Output)
6. Serial Communication Interface.
7. Clock Circuit (Oscillator Circuit)
8. Interrupt Mechanism.
9. Analog –to-digital (A/D) converters
10. Digital-to-analog(D/A) converters
2. Explain the supporting elements include in microcontrollers with block diagram. 12M
Supporting elements: A microcontroller is an integrated circuit (IC) device used for
controlling other portions of an electronic system, usually via a microprocessor unit
(MPU), memory, and some peripherals. These devices are optimized for embedded
applications that require both processing functionality and agile, responsive
interaction with digital, analog, or electromechanical components.

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The Elements of a Microcontroller:

A microcontroller consists of a
1. Central processing unit (CPU)
2. Nonvolatile memory
3. Volatile memory
4. Peripherals and
5. Support circuitry.
3. Describe the different types of memory commonly available on a Microcontroller. 12M
There are normally 3 types of memory present in microcontrollers. These are SRAM,
FLASH, and EEPROM memories.
The architecture of a microcontroller may require that variables and constants be
stored in different types of memory.
SRAM: SRAM is the memory that is read and written to repetitively for a
microcontroller circuit.
The 8 essential memories can be divided into 2 categories namely primary and
secondary memory as shown in the picture.
Thus they include the following

1. SRAM
2. DRAM
3. Masked ROM
4. PROM
5. EPROM
6. EEPROM
7. flash memory and
8. NVRAM
Primary memory types
1. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM): This is the faster of the 2,
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approximately 4 times faster than the DRAM. Since it needs more transistors per
bit of data, it is also more expensive compared to DRAMs.
2. Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM): The reason behind its name
comes from the fact that the data stored in this RAM needs to be refreshed every
few milliseconds or else it will end up being erased.

Secondary Memory types

3. Masked ROM: The main characteristic of this device is the fact that the data is
written onto the device as it gets manufactured and it is impossible to change them.
This is done by designing the chip in such a manner so that it already contains the
necessary data.
4. PROM: PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are
programmable chips, the main characteristic being it can only be programmed one
time. That is it cannot be erased or reprogrammed. They are also known as One
Time Programmable devices or OTPs for short.
5. EPROM: EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory. These
chips usually have a small glass window on top and if you expose them to direct
sunlight that will erase the chip‘s data. They can then be programmed again with
fresh data
6. EEPROM: EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory. These chips can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity as opposed
to exposing them to UV rays as EPROMs.
7. Flash memory: This memory is the most popular one that you might come across
on a day to day basis as an embedded developer. It has all the qualities of
EEPROMs except one.
8. NVRAM or Non Volatile Random Access Memory: This is a special type of
RAM that can store data permanently.
4. How does a programmable logic controller work? Draw basic structure of PLC 12M
and explain it.
The programmable logic controller receives information from connected input
devices and sensors, processes the received data, and triggers required outputs as per
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its pre-programmed parameters.

A PLC system has the basic components of processor unit, memory, power
supply unit, input/output interface section, communications interface and the
programming device.
The processor unit have microprocessor which interprets the input signals and
carries out the control actions. The power supply unit converts the mains AC voltage
to the low DC voltage necessary for the processor and the circuits in the input and
output interface modules. The required program is entered into the processor‘s
memory via the programming device. The memory unit stores the data which is from
the input for processing and for the output. The input and output sections are
external devices which receives information from external device and communicates
information. The communications interface receives and transmit data on
communication networks.
A ladder diagram is the symbolic representation of the control logic used for
ladder logic programming of a PLC. Ladder diagrams have horizontal lines of
control logic called rungs and vertical lines at the start and end of each rung called
rails. The structure of a ladder diagram actually looks like a ladder, hence the name
―ladder diagram‖.

So writing a PLC program using ladder diagrams is similar to drawing a relay

control circuit.
Ladder logic diagrams express logic operations using symbolic notation rather

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than circuit components.
The rails in a relay logic circuit represent the supply wires of a relay logic
control circuit. However, in ladder diagrams, the rails represent the start and end of
each line of symbolic code.
the vertical lines show the power supply or flow.
The rungs in a relay logic circuit represent the wires that connect the
components together. However, in a ladder diagrams, the rungs represent the logic
flow through the symbolic code.
the horizontal lines called Rungs
Basic Important Parts:
 Rungs
 Branches
 Inputs and Outputs for PLC programming
 Addressing Inputs and Outputs
 Instructions
 Branches
There are three types of branches. They are as follows.
1. Series Branch:
In the series branch, inputs or outputs are connected in the series.
2. Parallel Branch:
In the parallel branch, inputs or outputs are connected parallel.
3. Nest Branch:
The combination of series and parallel branches in the same or different rungs
are called as Nest Branch.
Inputs and Outputs for PLC Programming:
For writing the program, Inputs and outputs are playing the most important role.
Inputs refer to the switch or Push Button (PB).
Output referred to the Coil or Lamp or Load.
Input is Normally Open (NO) Contact or Normally Closed (NC) Contact.
5. (a) Which type microcontroller is most commonly used? Discuss architecture of 8051 6M
Microcontroller.
Answer:
The three most popular lines of 8-bit microcontrollers are the 8051 series, the PIC
series from Microchip, and the AVR series from Atmel, now part of Microchip.
Let us now discuss the architecture of 8051 Microcontroller.

In the following diagram, the system bus connects all the support devices to the CPU.
The system bus consists of an 8-bit data bus, a 16-bit address bus and bus control
signals. All other devices like program memory, ports, data memory, serial interface,
interrupt control, timers, and the CPU are all interfaced together through the system
bus.

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Fig: 8051 Microcontroller

(b) What are the applications of 8051 microcontroller? List out the various functional 6M
blocks of 8051 micro-controller

The microcontroller 8051 applications include a large amount of machines,

principally because it is simple to incorporate in a project or to assemble a machine
around it. The following are the key spots of the spotlight:
 Energy Management: Competent measuring device systems aid in calculating
energy consumption in domestic and industrialized applications. These meter
systems are prepared competent by integrating microcontrollers.
 Touch screens: A high degree of microcontroller suppliers integrate touch
sensing abilities in their designs.
 Automobiles: The microcontroller 8051 discovers broad recognition in
supplying automobile solutions. They are extensively utilized in hybrid motor
vehicles to control engine variations. Also, works such as cruise power and
anti-brake mechanism has created it more capable with the amalgamation of
micro-controllers.
 Medical Devices: Handy medicinal gadgets such as glucose & blood pressure
monitors bring into play micro-controllers, to put on view the measurements, as
a result, offering higher dependability in giving correct medical results.

There are various versions of 8051 Microcontroller. These versions are 8051H,
8051BH and 8051CH. Here we will see the general 8051 Microcontroller.

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6. (a) What aspects should be considered for the selection of a PLC for the application? 6M

PLC selection criteria consists of:

 System (task) requirements.
 Application requirements.
 What input/output capacity is required?
 What type of inputs/outputs are required?
 What size of memory is required?
 What speed is required of the CPU?
 Electrical requirements.
 Speed of operation.
 Communication requirements.
 Software.
 Operator interface.
 Physical environments
(b) Draw flip flop shift register and explain it. 6M

Shift Registers are sequential logic circuits, capable of storage and transfer of data.
They are made up of Flip Flops which are connected in such a way that the output of
one flip flop could serve as the input of the other flip-flop, depending on the type of
shift registers being created.
There are four types of shift registers: serial in-serial out (SISO) shift registers, in
which data is input serially until it reaches the output; serial in-parallel out (SIPO)
shift registers, in which the data is input
Flip-flops also called as latches. The latches can also be understood as Bistable Multi

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vibrator as two stable states. Generally, these latch circuits can be either active-high
or active-low and they can be triggered by HIGH or LOW signals respectively.
The common types of flip-flops are,
 RS Flip-flop (RESET-SET)
 D Flip-flop (Data)
 JK Flip-flop (Jack-Kilby)
 T Flip-flop (Toggle)
Out of the above types only JK and D flip-flops are available in the integrated IC
form and also used widely in most of the applications. Here in this article we will
discuss about D type Flip Flop.
D Flip-flop:
D Flip-flops are used as a part of memory storage elements and data processors as
well. D flip-flop can be built using NAND gate or with NOR gate. Due to its
versatility they are available as IC packages. The major applications of D flip-flop
are to introduce delay in timing circuit, as a buffer, sampling data at specific
intervals. D flip-flop is simpler in terms of wiring connection compared to JK flip-
flop
Whenever the clock signal is LOW, the input is never going to affect the output state.
The clock has to be high for the inputs to get active. Thus, D flip-flop is a controlled
Bi-stable latch where the clock signal is the control signal. Again, this gets divided
into positive edge triggered D flip flop and negative edge triggered D flip-flop. Thus,
the output has two stable states based on the inputs which have been discussed
below.

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The D (Data) is the input state for the D flip-flop. The Q and Q‘ represents the output
states of the flip-flop. According to the table, based on the inputs the output changes
its state. But, the important thing to consider is all these can occur only in the
presence of the clock signal
7. (a) Classify robots based on the configurations with neat diagrams. 6M
Co-ordinate systems:- Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes,
shapes, and physical configurations. The vast majority of today‘s commercially
available robots possess one of the basic configurations:
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configurable
4. Jointed-arm configuration
Polar configuration:-

The polar configuration is pictured in

part (a) of Fig. It uses a telescoping arm
that can be raised or lowered about a
horizontal pivot The pivot is mounted on
a mta6ng base These various joints
provide the robot with the capability to
move its arm within a spherical space,
and hence the name ―spherical
coordinate‖ robot is sometimes applied
to this type. A number of commercial
robots possess the polar configuration
Cylindrical configuration:-
The cylindrical configurable, as shown in
fig, uses a vertical column and a slide
that can be moved up or down along the
column. The robot arm is attached to the
slide so that it cm he moved radially with
respect to the column. By routing the
column, the robot is capable of achieving
a work space that approximation a
cylinder.

3. Cartesian coordinate configurable:-

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The cartesian coordinate robot,
illustrated in part Cc) of Fig, uses three
perpendicular slides to construct the x, y,
and z axes. Other names are sometimes
applied W this configuration, including
xyz robot and rectilinear robot, By
moving the three slides relative to one
another, the robot is capable of operating
within a rectangular work envelope.

4. Jointed-arm configuration:-
The jointed-arm robot is pictured in Fig.
Its configuration is similar to that of the
human arm. It consists of two straight
components. Corresponding to the
human forearm and upper arm, mounted
on a vertical pedestal. These components
are connected by two rotary joints
corresponding to the shoulder and elbow.

(b) What is the role of robots in loading and unloading, discuss in detail? 6M
Machine loading and/or unloading :
Primary aim is to transfer parts into or out-of a production machine.
• There are three classes to consider:
o machine loading—where the robot loads the machine
o machine unloading—where the robot unloads the machine
o machine loading and unloading—where the robot performs both actions
• Used in die casting, plastic molding, metal machining operations, forging, press -
working, and heat-treating operations.
8. Define robot. With neat sketch explain the robot anatomy. 12
M
Industrial Robot:
Industrial robot is defined as an automatic, freely programmed, servo-controlled, multi-
purpose manipulator to handle various operations of an industry with variable
programmed motions.
Robot Anatomy:
The anatomy of industrial robots deals with the assembling of outer components of a
robot such as wrist, arm and body.

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 The anatomy of industrial robots deals with the assembling of outer

components of a robot such as wrist, arm and body.
• The manipulator of an industrial robot consists of a series of joints and links.
• Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other
aspects of the manipulator's physical construction.
• A robotic joint provides relative motion between two links of the robot.
• Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of-freedom (dof) of motion.
• In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint.
• Robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees -
of-freedom they possess.
• Each joint is connected to two links, an input link and an output link.
 A Joint provides controlled relative movement between the input link and
output link. A robotic link is the rigid component of the robot manipulator.
 Most of the robots are mounted upon a stationary base, such as the floor.
 From this base, a joint-link numbering scheme may be recognized as shown in
below Figure.
9. List the different types of joints used in robots with neat sketch. 12
 Translational motion M
 Linear joint (type L)
 Orthogonal joint (type O)
 Rotary motion
 Rotational joint (type R)
 Twisting joint (type T)
 Revolving joint (type V)
Linear Joint:
Linear joint can be indicated by the letter L –Joint. This type of joints can perform
both translational and sliding movements.
These motions will be attained by several ways such as telescoping mechanism and

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piston. The two links should be in parallel axes for achieving the linear movement.

Orthogonal Joint:
The O –joint is a symbol that is denoted for the orthogonal joint. This joint is
somewhat similar to the linear joint. The only difference is that the output and input
links will be moving at the right angles.

Rotational Joint:
Rotational joint can also be represented as R –Joint. This type will allow the
joints to move in a rotary motion along the axis, which is vertical to the arm axes.

Twisting Joint:
Twisting joint will be referred as V –Joint. This joint makes twisting
motion among the output and input link. During this process, the output link axis will
be vertical to the rotational axis. The output link rotates in relation to the input link.

Revolving Joint:
Revolving joint is generally known as V –Joint. Here, the output link axis is
perpendicular to the rotational axis, and the input link is parallel to the rotational
axes. As like twisting joint, the output link spins about the input link.

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10. (a) What is degree of freedom? Briefly explain it. 6M
The degrees of freedom of a robot typically refer to the number of movable joints
of a robot. A robot with three movable joints will have three axis and three degrees of
freedom, a four axis robot will have four movable joints and four axis, and so on.
Desired Degrees of Freedom
 3 Dimensional Case
 3 DOF for positioning (x, y, z)
 3 DOF for orientation (pitch, yaw, roll)
 2 Dimensional Case (Planar case)
 2 DOF for positioning (x, y)
 1 DOF for orientation (tilt)
(b) Describe the factors to be considered in the design of grippers. 6M
Selection and design considerations in robot gripper
The industrial robots use grippers as an end effector for picking up the raw and
finished work parts. A robot can perform good grasping of objects only when it obtains
a proper gripper selection and design. Factors that are required to be considered in
gripper selection and design.
The gripper must have the ability to reach the surface of a work part.
 ·The change in work part size must be accounted for providing accurate
positioning.
 During machining operations, there will be a change in the work part size. As a
result, the gripper must be designed to hold a work part even when the size
is varied.
 ·The gripper must not create any sort of distort and scratch in the fragile work
parts.
 ·The gripper must hold the larger area of a work part if it has various
dimensions, which will certainly increase stability and control in positioning.
 The gripper can be designed with resilient pads to provide more grasping
contacts in the work part. The replaceable fingers can also be employed for
holding different work part sizes by its interchangeability facility.
Moreover, it is difficult to find out the magnitude of gripping force that a gripper must
apply to pick up a work part. The following significant factors must be considered to
determine the necessary gripping force.
 Consideration must be taken to the weight of a work part.
 It must be capable of grasping the work parts constantly at its centre of mass.
 The speed of robot arm movement and the connection between the direction
of movement and gripper position on the work part should be considered.
·It must determine either friction or physical constriction helps to grip the
work part.
 ·It must consider the co-efficient of friction between the gripper and work part.

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UNIT IV
1. With help of a suitable example, explain the following related to Robotic joints: 12M
(a) Translation (b) Rotation (c) Transformation

(a) Translation
Translational Motion: Translational motion is motion that involves the
sliding of an object in one or more of the three dimensions: x, y or z. This
motion can be achieved by linier joints.
Linear Joint:
This type of joints can perform both translational and sliding movements.

Orthogonal Joint:
This joint is somewhat similar to the linear joint. The only difference is
that the output and input links will be moving at the right angles.

(b) Rotation
Rotational Motion: Rotational motion is where an object spins around an
internal axis in a continuous way. Rotational motion can be achieved by
rotational joints.
Rotational Joint:
Rotational joint can also be represented as R –Joint. This type will allow
the joints to move in a rotary motion along the axis, which is vertical to the arm
axes.

(c) Transformation
Basic rotation [3X3] matrix represents only rotation of the frame, after
homogeneous transformation, Matrix is transformed [4X4] takes care of both the
translation and rotation of the frame attached to the body with respect to the fixed
frame.

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2. Elucidate the manipulator kinematics with neat sketche 12M

A point P in the space can be represented to both coordinate system (World coordinate
system OXYZ and joint coordinate system OUVW).

( ) ( )

Where and represents the same point P in the space with reference to different
coordinate systems T on vector s and matrices denotes the transpose operation.
We would like find the 3 X 3 transformation matrix R that will transform of to
coordinate expressed with respect to the OXYZ coordinates, after the OUVW
coordinate system has been rotated.

Now

Note that physically the point has been rotated together with OUVW coordinate
system.
Rescaling the definition of the components of a vector

Where represent the components of P along the OX, OY and OZ axes

respectively. Thus, using the definition of a scalar product and Eq. 3.

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or expressed in matrix form

[ ] [ ][ ]

Using this notation, the matrix R in Eq. 2 given by

[ ]

Similarly, one can be obtained the coordinates of from the coordinates of

[ ] [ ][ ]

The necessary transformation matrix is called the rotation matrix about the OX axis
with α angle.
With and

[ ] [ ]

Similarly, 3 X 3 rotation matrices about the OY axis with ϕand the OZ axis with θ angle
are, respectively

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[ ] [ ]

3. Briefly explain the D-H notation joint coordinates with diagram. 12M

Denavit-Hartenberg Convention

Number the joints from 1 to n starting with the base and ending with the end-effector.
The following steps are followed.
• Establish the base coordinate system: Establish a right-handed orthonormal
coordinate system at the supporting base with axis lying along the axis of
motion of joint 1.

• Establish joint axis: Align the Z with the axis of motion (rotary or sliding) of
i
joint i+1.
• Establish the origin of the with coordinate system: Locate the origin of the ith
coordinate at the intersection of the Z & Z or at the intersection of common
i i-1
normal between the Z & Z axes and the Z axis.
i i-1 i

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• Establish X axis: Establish or along the common normal between the Z &Z
i i-1 i
axes when they are parallel.
• Establish Y axis: Assign to complete the right-handed coordinate system.
i
• Find the link and joint parameters
Link and Joint Parameters
• Joint angle: the angle of rotation from the X axis to the X axis about the Z
i-1 i i-1

axis. It is the joint variable if joint i is rotary.

• Joint distance: the distance from the origin of the (i-1) coordinate system to the
intersection of the Z axis and the X axis along the Z axis. It is the joint
i-1 i i-1
variable if joint i is prismatic.
• Link length: the distance from the intersection of the Z axis and the X axis to
i-1 i
the origin of the ith coordinate system along the X axis.
i
• Link twist angle: the angle of rotation from the Z axis to the Z axis about the
i-1 i
X axis.
i
4. Write short notes on following: 12M
(a) Forward transformation (b) Reverse transformation
(a) Forward transformation
 A manipulator is composed of serial links which are affixed to each other
 revolute or prismatic joints from the base frame through the end-effector.
 Calculating the position and orientation of the end-effector in terms of the
joint variables is called as forward kinematics.
 In order to have forward kinematics for a robot mechanism in a systematic
manner, one should use a suitable kinematics model.
 It is a computation of position and orientation of robot‘s end effector from
joint angles.
 The input in this method is joint angle vectors
 The position of links are expressed using Cartesian space and joint space
 It is a simple method and takes less time in real time control of manipulators.
(b) Reverse transformation
 The inverse kinematics problem of the serial manipulators has been studied
for many decades.
 It is needed in the control of manipulators.
 Solving the inverse kinematics is computationally expansive and generally
takes a very long time in the real time control of manipulators.
 Tasks to be performed by a manipulator are in the Cartesian space, whereas
actuators work in joint space.
 It is a computation of joint angles from position and orientation of robot‘s
end effector
 The input in this method is position and orientation of end effector
 The joint angles are determined by geometric, trigonometric or algebraic
method

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 It determines the pose of the robot‘s end effector or tool
 It is a complex method and takes more time in real time control of
manipulators
5. Differentiate between newton-Euler and Euler –Lagrangian formulations and find 12M
the dynamic equations of motion.
Lagrange-Euler formulations
 It is an energy based approach
 The equation of motion is derived using a scalar function (Lagrangian)
 The computations are more complex
 It is suitable for formulation of simple physical interpretations
 It is difficult to compute real time control problems
 More time consuming method
Newton- Euler formulations
 It is a force balance approach
 The equation of motion is derived by computing linear and angular accelerations
 The computations are less complex
 It is not suitable for formulation of simple physical interpretations
 It is difficult to drive advanced control laws
 Less time consuming method
Dynamic equations of motion:
Lagrange Function Differentiating the Lagrangian equation, gives the dynamic
equations of the manipulator
The algebraic difference between total kinetic energy and total potential energy of a
system is defined as Lagrange function or Lagrangian".
It is denoted by
ie,L =KE-PE
The dynamic model is given by a differential equation,

The steps to be followed to obtain the dynamic equations for a manipulator are,
 Determination of velocity at a point in a link.
 Determination of kinetic energy of a link.
 Determination of potential energy of a link.
 Obtaining the Lagrangian formula.

Differentiating the Lagrangian equation, gives the dynamic equations of the

manipulator

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6. What is path planning? Explain the need for path planning. 12M
The path planning is the planning of the whole way from point A to point B, including
stopping in defined path points. The path includes several continuous motion
trajectories that need the trajectory planning. If a path cannot be previously planned
because of limited previous information, the motion task is named as path finding.
Motion planning, also path planning (also known as the navigation problem or the
piano mover's problem) is a computational problem to find a sequence of valid
configurations that moves the object from the source to destination.
The main path planning tasks (need) for a robot are as follows:
- To grasping and releasing objects
- To moving from place to place
- To following previously specified paths
- To following moving objects
- To working with other manipulators
- To exerting forces (i.e. pushing, pulling and holding)
- To exerting torques
- To collecting data
- To using tools
7. Summarize the steps involved in trajectory planning. 12M
Trajectory planning involves three steps, they are,
a) Task description
b) Selecting and applying planning technique
c) Determining the trajectory.
a) Task Description
In case of motion planning problem, the first step to determine type of motion
required. They are divided into three types, as follows,
i) Point-to-Point Motion
In tasks like pick and place the starting and ending positions of end effector
represents the task. This motion is called point-to-point motion and it should follow
smooth curve. In this type of problem, for a known starting value, the final location
in Cartesian system is specified.
Continuous Path Motion
In continuous path motion, the end effector traces the starting and ending positions as
well as a certain path between these positions, in cartesian spıce. The parameters of
path to be traced is specified by the user. Examples are welding and plotting
Path Points:
In this, to specify à trajectory, the task needs more than two points, in order to enable
efficient execution and enhanced control. In pick and place operation, number of
points are identified in the path. The first point of the path is called "initial point and
the last is called 'goal point', while the midpoints are called path points or via points.
b) Selecting and Applying Planning Technique .
Depending upon the type of task, the techniques are classified into two types,
Joint Space Techniques
An example of point-to-point motion uses this technique in which planning is
accomplished with respect to joint level .This gives time dependent functions; whose

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derivatives represent the required motion of the manipulators
Cartesian Space Techniques
Continuous path motion uses this technique, in which each point of end effector has
position, velocity and acceleration as functions of time and using inverse kinematics,
their derivatives are to be calculated.
C) Determining the Trajectory: Using the above techniques and their solutions, the
trajectory is to be determined, at an update rate, ranging from 20 Hz to 200Hz
8 Explain the following in relate to Robots 12M
(a) Path planning (b) Avoidance of obstacles in robotics.
(a) Path planning:
The path planning is the planning of the whole way from point A to point B, including
stopping in defined path points. The path includes several continuous motion
trajectories that need the trajectory planning. If a path cannot be previously planned
because of limited previous information, the motion task is named as path finding.
The main path planning tasks for a robot are as follows:
- Grasping and releasing objects
- Moving from place to place
- Following previously specified paths
- Following moving objects
- Working with other manipulators
- Exerting forces (i.e. pushing, pulling and holding)
- Exerting torques
- Collecting data
- Using tools
(b) Avoidance of obstacles
Generally, the obstacles can be classified as follows.
2D – Planar motion around obstacles is a relatively simple task, and good solutions
already exist for finding paths in this case.
2,5D – Planar motion of a robot considering the height of obstacles is a 2.5D problem
for path planners.
3D – Motion through the three dimensional openings is the 3D problem for path
planners (considering openings and robot dimensions is needed)

1. Avoidance in 2D and 2.5D space:

A well-known problem of collision avoidance is moving high dimensional objects in
rubbish environment. This is known as the piano mover‘s problem in a little apartment
if the piano cannot be lifted up.
In this case the obstacles are considered as infinitely high. The method is useful if the
manipulator of the robot is operating in clear workspace and fulfills picking and
placing type operations. Path finding problem in that kind of 2D space can be easily
solved. If the height of the obstacle is known, then the robot operates in 2.5D space.
The problem of avoiding collision with obstacles can be solved in different ways. First,
all pick and place type operations may be organized above obstacles and all moving
manipulator‘s links of the robot must be also above the obstacles. Secondly, different
algorithms may be found for passing of obstacles. This first method is normally used

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by people if something is needed to be transferred in a classroom with many tables. It
is easier to transfer an object above the tables not to find the way how to pass them.
2. Obstacles avoidance in 3D space:
Sometimes a 3D image can be substituted with a 2D image and the 2D method of path
finding may be used. If a possibility to find a path in a 2D space exists, then it may
exist also in a 3D space. Using of 2D images simplifies the solution of the path finding
problem.
The image of moving objects can also be simplified and simple boxes or cylinders may
be used instead of complex form objects. To avoid collisions with moving objects,
additional free space must be considered around these objects.

Fig. Collision avoidance in 3D space or and using 2D view

9. Define the following terms of trajectory planning 12M
(i) Trajectory (ii)Spline (iii) Joint space scheme (iv) Cartesian space scheme.
(i) A trajectory is a path in which kinematic equations of each point are defined as a
function of time. Thus, Trajectory represents the order of position, velocity and
acceleration by every joint and ink of the manipulator, by specifying in joint space or
cartesian space. It represents spatial motion as well as temporal motion.
(ii) Spline: A smooth curve passing through number of points (knot points) in a
trajectory of manipulator is called spline.
(iii) Joint space scheme: in joint space scheme or trajectory planning, ever point has
definite path and is defined by position and orientation of end-effector of the
manipulator from reference system. After applying inverse kinematics, each point
changes its: position to of joint positions. Thus, a smooth curve joining all these
points is formed, for each joint.
(iv) Cartesian Space Scheme
In Cartesian space scheme or trajectory planning, the trajectory is represented by
Cartesian coordinates and joint coordinates
The Cartesian coordinates consists of path constraints such as, velocity, acceleration
etc. whereas, joint coordinates specify the joint actuators.

10 Illuminate straight line motion with neat sketch. 12M

Planning a Cartesian Space Straight Line Trajectory
A straight line Cartesian space trajectory seems simple to compute:
1. Find the straight line between the start and end points.
2. Divide this line up into a number of equally spaced points N.
3. Compute inverse kinematics on each of these N interval points.

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4. Move the robot (under joint control) to the inverse kinematics joint solution
associated with each successive Cartesian interval point
Straight Line Motion:
You would like to generate your trajectory in joint space, since it is simple to interpolate
joints from one position to another. However, joint space trajectories can deviate
substantially from straight line trajectories.

Fig. Joint space and Cartesian space trajectory for 2-link manipulator

However we might be lucky and find out that a simple linear interpolation in joint space
is good enough. Taylor‘s method computes how far the joint space path deviates from
the Cartesian straight line path, and then tries to fix things up by improving those parts
of the joint space path that are far away from the Cartesian space path.
The algorithm assumes that the worst case deviation is at the midpoint of the trajectory
as shown in figure.

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Fig. Trajectory method of bounded deviations

UNIT V
1. Explain in detail manual lead through programming method in robot application. 12M
There are various methods used for programming robots. The two basic types are,
1. Lead through methods 2. Textual robot languages.
Lead through Methods
In this method of programming, the robot is moved through the desired motion path
and this path is_ recorded into the controller memory. There are two ways to
accomplish the above task
(a) Powered lead through (b) Manual lead through.
Manual lead through:
Manual lead through method is suitable for continuous path programming. Where the
continuous path is an regular motion patterns such as in spray painting.
In this method the programmer physically grasps the tools attached to the arm and
manually moves through the motion sequences. This arm movement is recorded into
the memory. The robot arm possesses large pass and it is physically difficult to move,
therefore the manual robot is replaced by a special programming device for the teach
procedure. But, the programming device has the same geometry as the robot. The
programming device has a provision for a trigger handle or other control switch which
are activated, when the motions are to be recorded into memory by the operator. The
motions are recorded in a sequence of closely spaced points. Through the same
sequence of points the path during the playback is recreated by controlling the actual
robot arm.
Lead through programming advantages
 Work cycle is instructed to the robot by physically moving the manipulator
through the required motion cycle and simultaneously recording the program
into the controller.
 It is not preferred for frequent changing of the process cycle.
 It is a simple, but less efficient method.
 It requires less skilled operator.
 The cost of programming is low.

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2. Classify various programming languages used computer controlled robots 12M
The various programming languages used computer controlled robots were as
follows:
Teach by showing:
Early robots were all programmed by a method that we will call teach by showing,
which involved moving the robot to a desired goal point and recording its position in
a memory that the sequencer would read during playback. During the teach phase,
the user would guide the robot either by hand or through interaction with a teach
pendant. Teach pendants are handled button boxes that allow control of each
manipulator joint or of each Cartesian degree of freedom. Some such controllers
allow testing and branching, so that simple programs involving logic can be entered.
Explicit robot programming languages:
Ever since the arrival of inexpensive and powerful computers, the trend has been
increasingly toward programming robots via programs written in computer
programming languages. Usually, these computer programming languages have
special features that apply to the problems of programming manipulators and so are
called robot programming languages (RPLs)
Robot programming languages have likewise taken on many forms. We will split
them into three categories:
1. Specialized manipulation languages: These robot programming languages have
been built by developing a completely new language that, although addressing
robot-specific areas, might well be considered a general computer programming
language.
2. Robot library for an existing computer language: These robot programming
languages have been developed by starting with a popular computer language
(e.g., Pascal) and adding a library of robot-specific subroutines.
3. Robot library for a new general-purpose language. These robot programming
languages have been developed by first creating a new general-purpose language
as a programming base and then supplying a library of predefined robot-specific
subroutines.
Task-level programming languages:
The third level of robot programming methodology is embodied in task-level
programming languages. These languages allow the user to command desired sub goals
of the task directly, rather than specify the details of every action the robot is to take. In
such a system, the user is able to include instructions in the application program at a
significantly higher level than in an explicit robot programming language.
3. Write about robot software packages. 12M

Robot software is the set of coded commands or instructions that tell a mechanical
device and electronic system, known together as a robot, what tasks to perform. Robot
software is used to perform autonomous tasks. Many software systems and frameworks
have been proposed to make programming robots easier. Some robot software aims at
developing intelligent mechanical devices. Common tasks include feedback loops,
control, path finding, data filtering, locating and sharing data. There are many software

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systems and frameworks that have been proposed to make programming robots easier.

Software Packages: Robot software is an interface between the user and robot,
consisting of data and set of instructions (program) which on execution results in
desired robot applications. The different types of software‘s used are,

Some of the software packages are

1. Command and Control Software: It is used for controlling graphical user

interface of a robot suitable for tele-operated robotic applications.
2. Point and Click Command Software: It is mainly used for controlling
autonomous robots.
3. Scheduling Software: It is used in industries for scheduling of raw material,
finished products, machining operations, etc., through mobile robots.

Example: Automated guided vehicle uses scheduling software‘s.

4. Tasking Software: It is used to control simple functions of a robot like pick and
drop of objects, setting up delivery lines etc.,

Example: Robot used in industries to transfer products from one conveyer belt to
other.
4. Define Robot program. What is the purpose of it and what are the various methods 12M
used for programming robots?
Answer:
Robot programming is programming the PC/SBC/microcontroller/PLC inside a robot
for performing a specific application using actuators and feedback from various
sensors.
Purpose:
The main purpose of robot programming is to perform a particular action, robots are
programmed either by guiding or by off-line programming. Most of the industrial
robots are programmed by guiding a robot from point to point through the phases of an
operation, with each point stored in the robotic control system.
Methods :
The various methods used for programming robots are

1. The Teach Method: This method involves using a teach pendant to guide the robot
through a series of points and having it store them in memory. The process of guiding
and recording these points or coordinates in space is called teaching in robotics.

2. Hand Guiding/Lead-Through Programming: Hand hiding or lead-through

programming involves physically moving the robot arm over a series of points and axis
to ―teach‖ it how to perform a desired function.

3. Offline Robot Programming: As the name suggests, this robot programming

method involves writing instructions on a separate system and using virtual models of
an industrial robot for testing. After the instructions have been written and tested, they

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are uploaded to the robot‘s memory. This method is preferred where a lot of
instructions need to be written and tested before being deployed in real life.
5. Illustrate the installation steps of robot programming. 12M
The installation of robot programming steps are as following:
1. Search for CPROG
2. Click on robot control software CPROG
3. Click on download CPROG
4. Click on installer
5. Select latest version V12-019
6. Click on installer language
7. Select English language
8. Click on license agreement
9. Click on I agree
10. Click on install and next
11. Finish
6. Discuss the various applications of robot. 12M
The various applications of robot are:
Arc Welding:
Arc welding, or robot welding, became commonplace in the 1980s. One of the
driving forces for switching to robot welding is improving the safety of workers from
arc burn and inhaling hazardous fumes.
Spot Welding:
Spot welding joins two contacting metal surfaces by directing a large current through
the spot, which melts the metal and forms the weld delivered to the spot in a very
short time (approximately ten milliseconds).
Materials Handling:
Material handling robots are utilized to move, pack and select products. They also
can automate functions involved in the transferring of parts from one piece of
equipment to another. Direct labor costs are reduced and much of the tedious and
hazardous activities traditionally performed by human labor are eliminated.
Machine Tending:
Robotic automation for machine tending is the process of loading and unloading raw
materials into machinery for processing and overseeing the machine while it does a
job.
Painting:
Robotic painting is used in automotive production and many other industries as it
increases the quality and consistency of the product. Cost savings are also realized
through less rework.
Picking, Packing and Palletizing:
Most products are handled multiple times prior to final shipping. Robotic picking and
packaging increases speed and accuracy along with lowering production costs.
Assembly:
Robots routinely assemble products, eliminating tedious and tiresome tasks. Robots
increase output and reduce operational costs.

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Mechanical Cutting, Grinding, Deburring and Polishing:
Building dexterity into robots provides a manufacturing option that is otherwise very
difficult to automate. An example of this is the production of orthopedic implants,
such as knee and hip joints. Buffing and polishing a hip joint by hand can normally
take 45-90 minutes while a robot can perform the same function in just a few
minutes.
Gluing, Adhesive Sealing and Spraying Materials:
Sealer robots are built with numerous robotic arm configurations that enable the
robot to apply adhesives to any type of product. The primary benefit in this
application is increased quality, speed and consistency of the final product.
Other Processes:
These include inspection, water jet cutting and soldering robots.
7. Briefly explain the uses of robot in manufacturing. 12M
Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations; the applications can be
divided into three categories: (1) material handling, (2) processing operations, and (3)
assembly and inspection.
1. Material-handling applications include material transfer and machine loading and
unloading. Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work
parts from one location to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple,
requiring robots to pick up parts from one conveyor and place them on another. Other
transfer operations are more complex, such as placing parts onto pallets in an
arrangement that must be calculated by the robot. Machine loading and unloading
operations utilize a robot to load and unload parts at a production machine. This
requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper that can grasp parts. Usually the
gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.
2. In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a
process on the work part. Examples of such applications include spot welding,
continuous arc welding, and spray painting. Spot welding of automobile bodies is one
of the most common applications of industrial robots in the United States. The robot
positions a spot welder against the automobile panels and frames to complete the
assembly of the basic car body. Arc welding is a continuous process in which the
robot moves the welding rod along the seam to be welded. Spray painting involves
the manipulation of a spray-painting gun over the surface of the object to be coated.
Other operations in this category include grinding, polishing, and routing, in which a
rotating spindle serves as the robot‘s tool.
3. Assembly and inspection: The third application area of industrial robots is
assembly and inspection. The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase
because of the high cost of manual labour common in these operations. Since robots
are programmable, one strategy in assembly work is to produce multiple product
styles in batches, reprogramming the robots between batches.
4. In nearly all industrial robotic applications, the robot provides a substitute for
human labour. There are certain characteristics of industrial jobs performed by
humans that identify the work as a potential application for robots:
 The operation is repetitive, involving the same basic work motions every cycle;

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 The operation is hazardous or uncomfortable for the human worker (e.g., spray
painting, spot welding, arc welding, and certain machine loading and unloading
tasks);
 The task requires a work part or tool that is heavy and awkward to handle;
 The operation allows the robot to be used on two or three shifts.
8. Illustrate the robot application in assembly and Inspection. 12M
Assembly:
 Robots are used for lean industrial processes and have expanded production
capabilities in the manufacturing world.
 An assembly line robot can dramatically increase production speed and
consistency. They also save workers from tedious and dull assembly line jobs.
 End of arm tooling can be customized for each assembly robot to cater to the
manufacturing requirements.
 Additional options, like robotic vision, can also be incorporated to improve
efficiency and accuracy of part orientation or sorting identifiers.

 Applications for robotic assembly include automotive components, like

pumps, motors and gearboxes.
 Computers and consumer electronics are another excellent area, as are
medical devices and household appliances.
 Assembly robots are ideal for tasks demanding speed and precision like
applying sealants and adhesives. Not only can they put together parts that are
too small or intricate for a human, but they work quickly and accurately
without tiring or making mistakes.
 They are good in applications where cleanliness is paramount, like
pharmaceuticals and medical device assembly, and they aren‘t prone to
debilitating injuries, like carpal tunnel syndrome, that come with repetitive
work.
Inspection:
 It is another area of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is
growing. In a typical inspection job, the robot positions a sensor with respect
to the work part and determines whether the part is consistent with the quality
specifications.
 The use of robots in assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost
of manual labour common in these operations.
 Since robots are programmable, one strategy in assembly work is to produce
multiple product styles in batches, reprogramming the robots between
batches.
9. Explain the various applications of robot in spot and continuous arc welding. 12M
The spot welding robot is the most imortant component of a robotized spot-welding
installation. Welding robots are available in various sizes, rated by payload capacity and
reach. Robots are also classified by the number of axes. A spot welding gun applies
appropriate pressure and current to the sheets to be welded. There are different types of
welding guns, used for different applications, available. An automatic weld-timer

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initiates and times the duration of current. The two most commonly used being the
direct acting type, generally known as a "C"-type gun, where the operating cylinder is
connected directly to the moving electrode, and the "X"-type (also known as "Scissors"
or "Pinch") where the operating cylinder is remote from the moving electrode, the force
being applied to it by means of a lever arm. C guns are generally the cheapest and the
most commonly used. There are many variations available in each basic type with
regard to the shape and style of the frame and arms, and also the duty for which the gun
is designed with reference to welding pressure and current.
Spot welding robots should have six or more axes of motion and be capable of
approaching points in the work envelope from any angle. This permits the robot to be
flexible in positioning a welding gun to weld an assembly. Some movements that are
awkward for an operator, such as positioning the welding gun upside down, are easily
performed by a robot.
Continuous arc welding:
Robotic arc welding is an essential component of today‘s manufacturing
plants. The development of automated arc welding solutions continues to be driven by
the requirement for higher product quality, productivity and reduced costs. In addition,
good manufacturing system flexibility, which is essential for responding to the dynamic
behaviours of the market and therefore keeping products competitive, has become a key
development target for the manufacturing industries. As a result, robotic welding
processes offer attractive alternative solutions to traditional manual operation and hard
automation. Through extensive application in many manufacturing industry sectors,
robotic welding has been developed to a mature production method.
A basic robotic arc welding system is formed by two subsystems: the welding
equipment delivering the energy from the welding power source to the work piece, and
the robot providing relative positioning of the heat source and the work piece. Normally
six-axis industrial robots comprising a three-axis lower arm and a three-axis wrist are
used, since they enable the welding torch mounted at the wrist to achieve all the
positions necessary for three-dimensional welding. Traditionally, general purpose
industrial robots are employed, carrying arc welding torches as end effectors. Many
robot manufacturers have recently developed arc welding-specific robots, which are
smaller and less expensive. This reduction of the required capital investment has further
increased the sale of robotic welding systems. Another recent development in welding
robotics has been the introduction of seven-axis robots, which feature an additional axis
in the lower arm providing additional flexibility and saving floor space.
10. List the robot application in material transfer. 12M
Material Transfer , Machine Loading And Unloading
There are many robot applications in which the robot is required to move a work part
or other material from one location to another. The most basic of these applications is
where the robot picks the part up from one position and transfers it to another position.
In other applications, the robot is used to load and/or unload a production machine of
some type.
Material transfer applications are defined as operations in which the primary
objective is to move a part from one location to another location. They are usually

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considered to be among the most straightforward of robot applications to implement.
The applications usually require a relatively unsophisticated robot, and interlocking
requirements with other equipments are typically uncomplicated. These are the pick ad
place operations. The machine loading and unloading applications are material
handling operations in which the robot is used to service a production machine by
transferring parts to and/or from the machine.
 Robots have been successfully applied to accomplish the loading and/or
unloading function in the production operations Die casting
 Plastic molding
 Forging and related operations
 Machining operations
 Stamping press operations

Prepared By Dr. P Ramesh

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