SIDDHARTH INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY:: PUTTUR

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QUESTION BANK
Subject with Code: Modern Machining Methods (19ME0326) Regulation: R19
Course & Branch: [Link] – MEC Year & Sem: [Link] & I-Sem

UNIT – I

1. Discuss the Modern Machining Methods with their advantages in the current industry.

The term non-traditional machining refers to the group of material removal techniques that
removes excess material involving mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy (or
combinations of these energies) and without the use of a sharp cutting tool in the conventional
sense. The non-traditional processes are mostly classified as per the form of energy used to
cause material removal. They are:

i. Mechanical: The work material is eroded by a high-velocity stream of abrasives or

fluid (or both). It is a typical form of mechanical action in these processes which enables
the removal of excess material. Mechanical process is:

a) Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) b) Ultrasonic Machining (USM) c) Water Jet

Machining (WJM)

ii. Electrical: The use of electrochemical energy is done in these non-traditional processes
to remove material; the mechanism is the reverse of electroplating. The Electrical
process are:

a) Electrochemical Machining (ECM) b) Electrochemical Grinding (ECG) c) Electro

Jet Drilling (EJD)

iii. Thermal: The use of thermal energy is done to cut or shape the workpiece. The thermal
energy is usually applied to a tiny portion of the work surface, which causes that portion
to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization. Conversion of electrical energy takes
place for the generation of thermal energy.

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 a) Electro-discharge machining (EDM) b) Laser Jet Machining (LJM) c) Electron Beam
Machining (EBM)

iv. Chemical: Most materials (particularly metals) are prone to chemical attack by certain
acids or other etchants. Chemicals selectively remove material from areas of the wo
rkpiece in chemical machining, while other portions of the surface stay protected by a
mask.

Modern manufacturing processes are classified according to the fundamental machining energy
employed. A detailed classification of the non-conventional machining process based on the
type of energy used, the mechanism of metal removal, the source of energy requirements etc,
is given below:

• Ultrasonic machining (USM)

• Water jet machining (WJM)
• Electrical discharge machining (EDM)
• Laser beam machining (EDM)
• Electron beam machining (EBM)
• Chemical machining (CHM)
• Electrochemical machining (ECM)
• Abrasive jet machining (AJM)

Advantages

1. It can be used for intricate shapes machining.

2. It can used for the brittle material.
3. For the small size machining we can use non-traditional machining.
4. The tool life is more since there is no problem of the tool wear.
5. For producing micro holes. Ex. 0.001 mm.
2. (a) Explain the need and characteristics for Modern Machining Methods.

To increase efficiency, machining is considered one of the ways to cut down expenditure costs.
This is due to its ability to drop the consuming cost; therefore, reducing money wastage. In
short, it reduces expenditure; thus, adding consumption to the benefits of carrying out the
machining process. Using machining process for materials can lead to better parts with tight

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tolerances, minimal deformation, and a good surface finish. The significant reasons for the
need and popularity of modern machining methods are listed below.

(a) Need of machine newly developed metals and non-metals having some unique properties
like high strength, high hardness and high toughness. A material posing the above-mentioned
properties is challenging to be machined he conventional machining methods.

(b) Sometimes, it is required to produce complex part geometries that cannot be produced by
following conventional machining techniques. Non-conventional machining methods also
provide very good quality surface finish which may also encourage these methods.

Characteristics of modern manufacturing methods

• Tool materials can have a much lower hardness than workpiece materials
• Energy such as electric energy, electrochemical energy, sound energy, or light energy
can be used to process the material directly.
• During machining, mechanical forces are not visible, and the workpiece rarely exhibits
mechanical and thermal deformation.
• Various methods can be chosen combined to create new process methods, boosting
production efficiency and machining precision significantly.

(b) What are the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Non-Traditional

Machining Methods.

1. A high surface finish can be obtained.

2. Machining is not only performed on the metal but it also performs on wood, plastic,
composites, and ceramics.

3. Various of geometry features are possible, such a Screw threads, very straight edges,
Accurate round holes, etc.

4. Good dimensional accuracy.

Disadvantages of Machining Process:

1. The accuracy of the components produce is dependent on the efficiency of the

operator.
2. Consistency in manufacturing is not present. Hence 100% inspection of the
component is required.

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 3. The personal needs of the operator are reducing the production rates.
4. Frequent design changes in the component cannot be incorporated into the existing
layout.

Applications

1. It is used to make deep grooves, narrow slits, and cut thin slices.
2. For cutting fragile materials like glass, ceramics, and quartz,
3. Drilling holes in workpiece using drill machine.
4. Knurling, Turning, Facing operations on lathe machine.

3. Explain the differences between Conventional and Non-Conventional machining are

used.

Conventional Machining Process Non-Conventional Machining Process

Example of the conventional machining Examples of the unconventional machining process

process is lathe machine, drilling machine, are abrasive jet machining, ultrasonic machining,
milling machine, etc. water jet machining, etc.

The cutting tool and the workpiece are

There is no physical contact between the tool and the
always in physical contact with each other in
workpiece.
relative motion.

The cutting tool need not be harder than the

The cutting tool will be always harder than
workpiece it is used non-traditional techniques like
the workpiece.
laser beams, electric arcs, etc.

Due to excessive wear, the life of the tool is

Tool life is longer.
shortened.

Generally, it is operated by hand. Generally, it is a fully automated process.

Usually, the cutting material comes out in Generally, the cutting material comes out in small
small pieces in the form of a chip. pieces in chip form or in powder form.

In this conventional machining process, force It uses different energy like electricity,
is required to cut the material. thermochemistry, etc. to provide machining action.

It is suitable for all materials. It is not suitable for all materials.

It has low accuracy and surface finishing. It has good accuracy and surface finishing.

It has more noise pollution. It has less noise pollution.

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 Conventional Machining Process Non-Conventional Machining Process

It costs less. It has a higher cost.

Requires both skilled and non-skilled

Requires skilled operator.
operators.

Easy setup of equipment. Complex setup of equipment.

It cannot be used to produce prototype parts It has the capacity to produce prototype parts very
very effectively. effectively.

The energy used to remove the material is Energy is mainly used mechanical, electrical,
primarily mechanical. thermal, and chemical.

Macroscopic chip formation. Microscopic chip formation.

Hard materials like ceramic-titanium cannot

Harder materials can be machined.
be machined.

The mechanism of material removal is

The system is based on the energy used.
shearing.

This machining process can be used for mass

Cannot be used for mass production.
production.

Production cost is low. Production cost is high.

MMR is high. MMR is low.

The poor surface finish is obtained. A better surface finish is obtained.

It can’t be used for small-size machining. It can be used for small-size machining.

The problem of tool wear, hence tool life is Here is problem of the tool wear, therefore life of
less. tool is more.

Less investment or capital cost. More capital or investment cost.

Direct contact between tool and workpiece. No direct contact between the tool and workpiece.

It can’t make micro holes. It can make micro holes.

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4. Discuss the classification of Non-Traditional Machining Processes and their tools.

Classification of Machining

There are three main kinds of machining such as turning, milling, and drilling. There are other
processes that also fall into the category of machining, but when it comes to modern machining
processes, turning, milling, and drilling cover the majority.

(a) Turning

Turning states to machining where the tool is spun against a tool that either shaves down or
cuts the raw material. Turning may look a lot like using a lathe (considered a kind of machining
for woodworking), but unlike a lathe, turning does not require the tool to be controlled by a
person. Computers can run the tool that then shapes the turned material, allowing for more
precision and safety. It produces a cylindrical shape. Often with turning operations, a lathe is
the preferred machine to use. As with many machining operations, turning is carried out either
automatically or manually. Manual turning operations do require constant supervision. Single
point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape.

Fig. (a) Turning

(b) Drilling

Drilling is a machining process where holes are drilled into the raw material. A standard drill
press is one of the most classic machining, but modern practices and technology allow drilling
to be far more advanced than a worker-controlled drill press. Computers can control a selection
of drill bits and cutting tools to create intricate holes in the material; the modern sieve can be
created with great ease thanks to the precision and advancement of modern drilling practices.
When machining a workpiece, chips are the waste material produced during the machining

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process. The way the drill bit is shaped enables chips to fall away from the workpiece. Used to
create a round hole, usually using a rotating tool (drill bit) Drilling with two cutting edges

Fig. (b) Drilling

(c) Milling

Milling is the process that cuts holes into materials using a rotating tool. Rather than spinning
the material against a stationary cutting tool like turning, milling uses a computer to control the
rotating cutting tool against a clamped-down piece of material. Unlike drilling, the tools for
milling allows for different shapes to be cut, such as cutting the raw material in half or adding
unique cuts. The two major types of milling operations are peripheral milling and face milling.
Peripheral milling cuts deep slots, gear teeth, and threads. Face milling cuts flat bottomed
cavities and flat surfaces into the workpiece using a feed that can be either vertical or
horizontal. Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved across work to cut a plane or straight
surface. It is further classified into two types of milling such as peripheral milling and face
milling.

Fig. (c) Milling

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Machining Tools

There are plenty of machining tools to choose from that do a wide variety of machining tasks.
The major categories of tools for machining are: turning tools, milling tools, grinding tools,
cutting tools, drilling tools, and boring tools. While there are more machining tools, these are
the most common tools from classic machining.

(i) Turning Tools

All turning tools work towards the turning machining process, spinning the raw material
against a stationary blade or other cutting tool.

(ii) Milling Tools

Milling tools are used for cutting unique shapes and designs out of raw materials.

(iii) Grinding Tools

Grinding is a type of machining that is related to turning, but involves more of the cleaning
rather than the shaping, deburring and the fine finishing of materials all require grinding.

(iv) Cutting Tools

When precise cuts are required, cutting tools such as shears and saws (manual or electric) allow
for straight lines through tough material.

(v) Drilling Tools

Drilling tools complete all the drilling processes, drill presses and many other drilling machines
allow clear-cut holes to be drilled through any material.

(vi) Boring Tools

Boring is a way to enlarge previously drilled holes, expanding a hole to the proper size.

A new development in machining practices, however, is the introduction of CNC machining.

Computer Numerical Control, CNC, is the addition of computers to machining practices, so
rather than relying on human ability, CNC Machining allows for the different cutting, grinding,
drilling, etc. tools to be controlled by a computer that is fed precise designs.

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5. (a) Illustrate a neat sketch, and explain the working process of the Ultrasonic Sonic
Machining Process (USM).

Ultrasonic Machining is a non-traditional process in which abrasives contained in a slurry are

driven against the work by a tool oscillating at low amplitude (25-100 microns) and high
frequency (15-30 kHz).

Working Principle of Ultrasonic Machining:

Figure. Schematic representaion of Ultrasonic Machining process

Ultrasonic machining is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process. It is employed

to machine hard and brittle materials (both electrically conductive and non-conductive
material) having hardness usually greater than 40 HRC. The process was first developed in
1950s and was originally used for finishing EDM surfaces. Generally, the power required to
start the machining is 50 to 60 Hz.

In ultrasonic machining, tool of desired shape vibrates at ultrasonic frequency (19 to 25 kHz)
with an amplitude of 15-50 Microns over work piece. Generally, tool is pressed down with a
feed force F. Between the tool and work, machining zone is flooded with hard abrasive particles
generally in the form of water-based slurry. As the tool vibrates over the work piece, abrasive
particles act as indenter and indent both work and tool material. Abrasive particles, as they
indent, the work material would remove the material from both tool and work piece. In

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Ultrasonic machining material removal is due to crack initiation, propagation and brittle
fracture of material. USM is used for machining hard and brittle materials, which are poor
conductors of electricity and thus cannot be processed by Electrochemical machining (ECM)
or Electro discharge machining (EDM). The tool in USM is made to vibrate with high
frequency on to the work surface in the midst of the flowing slurry. The main reason for using
ultrasonic frequency is to provide better performance. Audible frequencies of required
intensities would be heard as extremely loud sound and would cause fatigue and even
permanent damage to the auditory apparatus.

(B) Mention advantages, disadvantages, and applications of the Ultrasonic Machining

Process.

Advantages of ultrasonic Machining

• This process is used for drilling both circular and non-circular holes in very hard
materials like carbide, ceramics, etc.
• This process is best suited for brittle materials.
• The machining operation is simple and requires less time.
• This process is economical.
• Glass, Ceramic, tungsten land semi-precious stones can be machined
Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Machining
• Low material cutting rate.
• High power consumption.
• Low penetration rate.
• The process is limited to the machined surface of a small size.
• Shorter tool life.
Applications of ultrasonic Machining
Machining very precise and intricate shaped articles.
Drilling the round holes of any shape.
Grinding the brittle materials.
Profiling the holes.
Threading
Diamond is cut for the desired shapes.

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 Slicing and broaching hard materials.
Machining the glasses, ceramics.
Machining the precise mineral stones, tungsten.
Piercing of dies and for parting off operation.

6. Analyze the effects of the following parameters on MRR as applied to the Ultrasonic
Machining Process (USM).a) Amplitude & Frequency of Vibrations b) Grain Size c)
Applied Static Load d) Effect of Slurry

To finding MRR the following equation is required for calculating USM

Fig. One quarter cycle during Ultrasonic Machining

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 Where,
Q – Volume of work materail removal rate, d - Diameter
F – Feed force, A – Amplitude of the oscillation of tool
C – Concentration of the abrasive grains, Hw - Indication caused in the work
v – Frequency

The important parameters which affect the process are:

(i) Frequency:

From the above equation (1), the MRR increases linearly with the frequency. In practice also,
the MRR increases with the frequency (see below Figure) but the actual characteristic is not
exactly linear. The MRR tends to be somewhat lower than the theoretically-predicted value.

(ii) Amplitude:

When the amplitude of vibration is increased, the MRR is expected to increase, as can be seen
from relation (above equation 1). The actual nature of the variation is as shown in above Fig.1
b for different values of the frequency. Again, the actual characteristic is somewhat different
from the theoretically-predicted one. The main source of discrepancy stems from the fact that
we calculated the duration of penetration Δt by considering the average velocity (=A/(T/4)).
The characteristic of variation of Δt, given by:

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(iii) Grain Size:

Relation (equation 1) indicates that the MRR should rise proportionately with the mean grain
diameter d. However, when d becomes too large and approaches the magnitude of the
amplitude A, the crushing tendency increases, resulting in a fall in the MRR as shown in Figure.

(iv) Applied Static Load (Feed Force):

With an increase in static loading (i.e., the feed force), the MRR tends to increase. However,
in practice, it tends to decrease beyond a certain critical value of the force as the grains start
getting crushed. The nature of variation of the MRR with the feed force (for various amplitudes)
is shown in below Figure.

(v) Effect of Slurry:

Since the concentration directly controls the number of grains producing impact per cycle and
also the magnitude of each impact, the MRR is expected to depend on C. But relation (equation
1) shows that the MRR is expected to be proportional to C1/4. The actual variation is shown in
Fig. 3b for B4C and SiC abrasives. This is in a fairly good agreement with the theoretical
prediction. Since the MRR increases as C1/4, the increase in the MRR is quite low after C has
crossed 30%. Thus, a further increase in the concentration does not help. Some physical
properties (e.g., viscosity) of the fluid used for the slurry also affect the MRR. Experiments
show that the MRR drops as the viscosity increases.

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Figure shows a typical variation of the mean value of the surface unevenness with the mean
grain size for both glass and tungsten carbide as the work material. It is clear that the surface
finish is much more sensitive to the grain size in the case of glass. This is because of the fact
that, for a high hardness, the size of the fragments dislodged through a brittle fracture does not
depend much on the size of the impacting particles.

7. Explain the working principle of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and also describe its
parts briefly.

Definition:

Abrasive jet machining is impinging the high-speed stream of abrasive particles by high-
pressure gas or air on the work surface through a nozzle. Metal removal occurs due to erosion
caused by high-speed abrasive particles.

Abrasive Jet Machining Parts or Construction

• Gas Supply
• Filter
• Pressure Gauge
• Regulator
• Mixing chamber
• Nozzle
• Abrasive
• Workpiece

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1. Gas Supply:

Gas is supply to the system for the operation. The filtered gas, supplied under a pressure of 2
to 8 kgf/cm to the mixing chamber containing the abrasive powder and vibrating at 50 Hz
entrains the abrasive particles and is then passed into a connecting hose. This abrasive and gas
mixture emerges from a small nozzle mounted on a fixture at a high velocity ranging from 150
to 300 m/min.

2. Filter:

Filter indicates the cleanness of the fuel supply. Here the work is to clean the fuel if there are
any dust particles present.

3. Pressure Gauge:

This device will check the required amount of pressure is there or not. Normally this device
work is to check the pressure.

4. Regulator:

The regulator as the name indicates it controlling the flow. It controls the compressed air
flowing through the pipe.

5. Mixing Chamber:

Here we supply the abrasive particles and there already the amount of compressed air comes
from the pipe. Both will get a mix that’s why this is called a Mixing chamber.

6. Nozzle:

This is made up of hard material. The diameter of the nozzle is about 0.18 to 0.8 mm. Nozzles
have a great degree of abrasion wear, they are made of hard materials such as tungsten carbide
or synthetic sapphire to reduce the wear rate. Nozzles made of tungsten carbide have an average
life of 8 to 12 hours. The gases used are nitrogen, carbon dioxide or clean air.

7. Abrasive

Abrasive powder feed rate is controlled by the amplitude of vibration of the mixing chamber.
The gas flow and pressure is controlled by a pressure regulator. To control the size and shape
of the cut either the workpiece or the nozzle is moved by cams, pantographs or other suitable
mechanisms. In addition to the above abrasives, dolomite (calcium magnesium carbonate) of
200 grit size is found suitable for light cleaning and etching.
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8. Workpiece

The metal removal rate depends upon the diameter of the nozzle, the composition of the
abrasive gas mixture, the hardness of abrasive particles and that of work material, particle size,
the velocity of jet and distance of the workpiece from the jet. A typical material removal rate
for abrasive jet machining is 16 mm/min in cutting glass.

Working Principle

Figure. Abrasive Jet Machining

It consists of a mixing chamber, gas filter, pressure gauge, regulator, and nozzle. The filtered
gas at a pressure of 2 to 8 kgf/cm2 is supplied to the mixing chamber containing the abrasive
powder and vibrating at 50 Hz, where it mixes with abrasive particles and then enters into the
connecting hose. The abrasive and gas mixture comes out from the nozzle at a high velocity
ranging from 150 to 300 meters/minute and impinges over the work surface, causing abrasion
action by repeated impacts and the material is removed by erosion. Abrasive power feed rate
can be controlled by the amplitude of vibration of the mixing chamber. A pressure regulator
controls the gas flow and pressure. To control the size and shape of the cut, either workpiece
or nozzle is moved by cams, pantographs, or any other suitable mechanism. The carrier gas
should be cheap and non-toxic and easily available, It is generally air or nitrogen. Abrasive
generally used are Aluminium oxide, Silicon carbide or glass powder. The nozzle is generally
made by harder material such as ceramic or tungsten carbide to reduce abrasion wear. The

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material removal rate depends on the diameter of the nozzle, jet pressure, composition of
mixtures, Hardness of abrasive particles and workpiece, Particle size, the velocity of jet and
distance between work and nozzle.

8. (a) Explain the working principle of water jet machining (WJM)?

Definition:

Water jet machining is one of the modern machining processes which is used to machine
different types of workpieces ranging from plastics to metals. As the name suggests in water
jet machining, the force created by a water jet is used to remove material from the workpiece
or sometimes cut the workpiece into two parts.

Figure. Water Jet Machining

Working Principle of Water Jet Machining

Water jet machining works on the principle of erosion of the area on which the high-velocity
water jet strikes. In the process, first, the pressure of water is increased to a few thousand bars
and then the pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy of the water jet.

Step-by-step process:

• Water from the reservoir first enters the hydraulic pump.

• The hydraulic pump increases the pressure of water to around 5 bars and sends it to the
intensifier.

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 • The intensifier increases the pressure from 5 bars to 3000 to 5000 bars and sends it to
the mixing chamber and accumulator.
• Accumulator provides a high-pressure water supply to the mixing chamber whenever
needed.
• After passing through the intensifier water needs to go through the pressure control
valve where pressure is controlled.
• After passing through the control valve it reaches the flow control valve, where the flow
of water is checked.
• In this way, high-pressure water reaches the mixing chamber where it is mixed with
abrasive particles.
• The high-pressure water is then converted to a high-velocity flow of water. This stream
of water and abrasives strikes the workpiece.
• Material removal takes place due to the erosion of material from the surface of the
workpiece.
• The wastewater is removed through the drain and is supplied to the reservoir with the
help of a pump. Finally, the water supply is stopped and the finished product is
removed.
(B) What are the advantages, disadvantages and applications of water jet machining
(WJM).

Advantages

• Very soft materials like rubber can be easily machined

• No electrical conductivity of the workpiece is required
• No thermal effects on the workpiece are required.

Disadvantages

• Pressurizing the water to very high pressure is difficult.

• This method can't be used for the machining of hard materials.
• Developed for cutting very soft materials like rubber.

Applications

❖ It is used for machining or cutting reinforced plastic.

❖ Use to cut stone which can reduce the dust in the environment.
❖ It is used to cut hard metal like titanium, stainless steel, etc.

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 ❖ It is used in aerospace industries.
❖ Water jet machining is also used in automobile industries for machining different
automotive parts. This is due to the minimum wastage of material during the machining
process.

9. (a) List out the Machining techniques and write a short note need for MRR in
Industrial sectors.

Machining Techniques

The different types of machining and the different tools combine to create specific machining
techniques. Cutting, milling, drilling, grinding, boring, and turning are all classic types of
precision machining.

(a) Cutting

Using cutting tools either controlled manually or through CNC machining processes, cutting
the raw material to its specifications is the precision machining technique, cutting.

(b) Milling

Using milling tools, such as a fly cutter or hollow mill cutter, milling allows the worker to
create unique shapes and designs in the raw material, so it’s a very important technique for
precision machining.

(c) Drilling

Drilling is one of the most classic machining techniques, as drilling holes in materials without
compromising the material is a necessary application of machining.

(d) Grinding

The technique of grinding material to smooth the surface or create very small cuts is an
important finishing technique, and a major part of precision machining.

(e) Boring

Boring is an important precision machining technique that allows hole sizes to be increased
rather than re-drilled, which saves time and energy.

(f) Turning

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Another classic technique, turning allows raw material to be shaped and engraved quickly and
precisely, much likely sculpting out of hard material, turning removes raw material to create
the proper shapes.

Material Removal Rate

The material removal rate is defined as the amount of material removed from the workpiece
per unit. The material removal rate can be calculated from the volume of material removal or
from the weight difference before and after machining. It is an indication of how fast or slow
the machining rate is and a critical performance parameter in micro-EDM, as this is usually a
very slow process. In industrial sectors, higher machining productivity must also be achieved
with the desired accuracy and surface finish. The MRR greatly depends on the process
parameters. A higher value of discharging voltage, peak current, pulse duration, duty cycle,
and lower values of pulse interval can result in higher MRR. In addition to these electrical
parameters, other nonelectrical parameters and material properties have a significant influence
on MRR.

To evaluate the MRR (Q); the following one is for the instantaneous calculus:

Q = ύ[Link]

where Q is the MRR in mm3/min, ύc is the cutting speed in m/min, and Ac is the chip section
in mm2.

(b) What are the advantages, disadvantages and applications of MRR.

Advantages

• Very high dimensional accuracy

• Sharp corners can be obtained
• Versatile in operation
• Setup is as costly as compared to casting or forming processes

Disadvantages

• Size of component is generally limited

• Process is very costly as mentioned earlier, hence should only be used as a secondary
manufacturing process
• In manual machining highly skilled operator is required

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 • Time consuming is more.

Applications

• In making automotive parts

• Making parts of custom specifications
• Making of gears, shafts and other mechanical parts

10. (a) Illustrate the constriction parts of Ultrasonic Machining.

It consists of different parts as follows

❖ Power Supply
❖ Electro-mechanical transducer
❖ Horn
❖ Tool
❖ Slurry Tank
❖ Abrasive gun
❖ Workpiece
1. Power Supply:

To start, the machining process power is required. This is essential. As the diagram shows the
first is connected to the power supply. The alternating current power supply required to start
the machining is 50 to 60 Hz.

2. Electro-mechanical Transducer:

An electromechanical transducer connected to the AC supply. The transducer converts an

electrical signal to a mechanical signal whereas electromechanical transducer used to generate
mechanical vibration.

3. Horn

It holds the tool firmly.

4. Tool:

The tool should be designed like when the operation is performed does not lead to brittle
fracture of it. Therefore, the tool is made of tough, strong and ductile materials like steel,
stainless steel or HSS (High stainless steel), Mild Steel, etc.

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5. Slurry Tank:

A water-based slurry of abrasive particle used as an abrasive slurry in this machining.

Aluminium oxide, Silicon carbide, Boron carbide are used as an abrasive particle in this slurry
tank.

6. Abrasive Gun:

An abrasive gun is used to supply an abrasive slurry, which is a mixture of abrasive grain and
the water in between tool-workpiece interface under a definite pressure.

7. Workpiece:

As the machines perform several techniques like:

➢ Machining very precise and intricate shaped articles.

➢ Drilling the round holes of any shape.
➢ Grinding the brittle materials.
➢ Profiling the holes.
➢ Threading

(b) What are the advantages, disadvantages and applications, of Abrasive Jet Machining
(AJM).

Advantages

• The surface finish can be obtained smooth.

• The cost of equipment is low.
• Ability to cut fragile and heat-sensitive material without damage.
• Ability to cut intricates hole shapes in a hard and brittle material.
• The main advantages are its flexibility, low heat production

Disadvantages

• The material removal rate is low.

• Poor machining accuracy.
• High nozzle wear rate.
• The soft material cannot be machined.

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Applications

• Producing shallow crevices and deburring.

• Producing intricates hole shapes in a hard and brittle material.
• Cleaning and polishing the plastic, nylon and Teflon component.
• Frosting of the interior surface of glass tubes.
• Etching of marking of glass cylinders.
• Machining super-alloys and refractory material.
• Cutting slots and thin sections
• Drilling can be done easily

UNIT -II

1. (a) Discuss about Process Parameters of MRR, Power Circuits, Tool Wear in EDM
machining process
(i) Metal removal rate (MRR)
Out of all the non-traditional machining methods, the Electric Discharge Machining will
remove more material. In this sense, the MRR is higher for EDM. Material removal rate (MRR)
is the amount of material removed per time unit (usually per minute) when performing
machining operations such as using a lathe or milling machine. The more material removed per
minute, the higher the material removal rate. The MRR is a single number that enables you to
do this. It is a direct indicator of how efficiently you are cutting, and how profitable you are.
MRR is the volume of material removed per minute. The higher your cutting parameters, the
higher the MRR. The material removal rate in a work process can be calculated as the depth of
the cut, times the width of the cut, times the feed rate. The material removal rate is typically
measured in cubic centimetres per minute (cm3/min). The material removal rate (MRR) for
Wire cut EDM is calculated by using the equation,

MRR = F × Dw × H
Where, F - Machine feed rate (mm/min), Dw - Wire diameter (mm), H - Thickness of the
workpiece (mm).
(ii) Power Circuits
Copper, copper-tungsten and brass are also extensively used as EDM tool material. Minimum
tool wear condition can be obtained in EDM using graphite electrodes with frequency of about
3000 kHz, 30 A power supply. A coating of steel on graphite electrode tool is given to control

23
the actual wear of graphite tool. When the voltage between the two electrodes is increased, the
intensity of the electric field in the volume between the electrodes becomes greater, causing
dielectric break down of the liquid, and produces an electric arc. As a result, material is
removed from the electrodes. Once the current stops (or is stopped, depending on the type of
generator), new liquid dielectric is conveyed into the inter-electrode volume, enabling the solid
particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating properties of the dielectric to be restored.
Adding new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly referred to as flushing.
After a current flow, the voltage between the electrodes is restored to what it was before the
breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur to repeat the cycle.

(iii) Tool Wear

In electrical discharge machining (EDM) process, tool wear is an inevitable phenomenon that
adversely affects the geometrical accuracy of machined features. A theoretical model
accounting for tool wear during EDM process is hence the basis study for high precision
machining. Tool wear is the breakdown and gradual failure of a cutting tool due to regular
operation. Every tool will experience tool wear at some point in its life. Excessive wear will
show inconsistencies and have unwanted effects on your workpiece, so it is important to avoid
tool wear in order to achieve optimal end mill performance. Tool wear can also lead to failure,
which in turn can lead to serious damage, rework, and scrapped parts.

(b) Write a short note on optimization of Wire Electrical Discharge Machining and its
applications.
In this modern era of digitalization of technologies and global competitiveness, enterprises and
industries need to reduce time and save money and the only way they see it is through
optimization of process parameters. WEDM process suffers from a number of limitations such
as higher power consumption, high cost on initial investment and large floor space. Further, it
can machine only conductive materials and is more expensive when compared to a traditional
process like milling and turning. Therefore, a careful selection of the different parameters and
careful planning is recommended before commencing the machining process. Selection of
suitable machining parameters is critical to achieve optimum machining results. For WEDM,
MRR (Material Removal Rate), and Ra (Roughness Parameter, average roughness) are
considered as the most important parameters and the need to maximize MRR and minimize Ra
has always been the goal for many researchers and industries.

24
The main goals of WEDM manufacturers and users are to achieve a better stability and higher
productivity of the WEDM process. As newer and more exotic materials are developed, and
more complex shapes are presented, conventional machining operations will continue to reach
their limitations and the increased use of the WEDM in manufacturing or optimizing will
continue to grow at an accelerated rate. Wire electrical discharge machining manufacturers and
users emphasize on achievement of higher machining productivity with a desired accuracy and
surface finish. However, due to a large number of variables even a highly skilled operator with
a state-of-the-art WEDM is rarely able to achieve the optimal performance. An effective way
to solve this problem is to determine the relationship between the performance measures of the
process and its controllable input parameters.

Applications

• Prototype production.
• Automotive parts.
• Aerospace parts.
• Medical devices for implantations.
• Prototypes.
• Small hole drilling.
• Blanking punches.
• Extrusion dies.

2. Explain the working principle and machining process of EDM (Electrical Discharge
machining) with a neat sketch.

Electrical Discharge machining is the process of metal removal from the work surface due to
an erosion of metal caused by electric spark discharge between the two electrodes tool
(cathode) and the work.

Parts of Electro Discharge Machining

• Pulse Generator (Power Supply)

• Workpiece
• Fixture
• Dielectric Fluid
• Pump
• Filter

25
 • Tool Holder
• Spark generation
• Tool

1. Pulse Generator (Power Supply):

The power supply is given to the EDM process i.e. Negative terminal is given to the tool and a
Positive terminal is given to the workpiece.

2. Workpiece

The workpiece is fixed in the dielectric container using a fixture and is given the positive
terminal of the power supply.

3. Tool:

A tool is connected to negative sources of power whereas the workpiece is connected to

positive sources. from the filter, the fluid comes to the tool for the operation. When Power
supply will increase, between tools workpiece the spark generates and then machining starts.

4. Die electric fluid:

It has a property like insulation and it means no current flows from one to another. The Die
electric fluid will be ionized in the form of ion which will help between the tool and workpiece
again when power supply stops the fluid comes to its initial position.

26
5. Pump:

The pump is connected there for sending the fluid to the filter. This works like flowing the fluid
from one source to another one.

6. Tool Holder:

It is used to hold the tool properly.

[Link] generation:

A spark is generated between the tool and workpiece in the presence of dielectric medium and
thereby material removal takes place from the surface of workpiece.

[Link]:

The tool used in the Electric Discharge Machining process is either Copper or Tungsten or
Copper-Tungsten Alloy.

Working Principle of Electrical Discharge Machining Process

The workpiece is fixed in the dielectric container using a fixture. The tool is fed up by the
Servo Feed Unit which can move downward in a vertical direction. The power supply is given
to the electrical discharge machining process i.e., Positive terminal is given to the workpiece
and a Negative terminal is given to the tool. The tool and workpiece are separated using
dielectric fluid and an optimum gap is maintained between them. As stated above, that at
normal conditions, the dielectric fluid acts as an insulator. In this sense, no electrical
conductivity is taking place. But, by an increase of high pressure, the dielectric fluid ionizes
into Negative and Positive Ions. The positive ions are attracted to negative ions and negative
ions are attracted to positive ions and thereby the heat is generated. When positive and negative
ions collide with each other than the spark is generated between the tool and workpiece which
can remove the material from the surface of the workpiece. An air gap of 0.005 to 0.05 mm is
maintained between the tool and the work. The die electric fluid which is non-conductor of
electricity is forced under pressure through the gap. When a DC power is supplied, the fluid in
the gap gets ionized and produces a spark between the tool and workpiece, causing a local rise
in temperature at about 1000 degrees Celsius, when melts the metal in a small area of the
workpiece and vaporizes. The DC supply generates a pulse between 40 to 3000 V and the
frequency of spark at the rate of 10000 sparks per second can be achieved. The electric and

27
magnetic fields on heated metal cause a compressive force which removes the metal from the
work surface.

3. List out Types and Mechanisms of tool wear.

Types of Tool Wear

Tool wear can be classified into the following types:

1. Flank Wear
2. Crater Wear
3. Nose Wear
4. Notch Wear

Flank Wear

Flank wear is a form of wear that appears on the flank face (relief or clearance face) below the
cutting edge of the tool. It is caused by an abrasion between the tool flank and the newly
machined workpiece surface. Flank wear will be greater near the nose of the tool, and it is not
uniform along the cutting edge. It generally results from high temperatures, which affect the
tool and workpiece. This type of wear occurs on all tools when cutting any type of work
material.

Crater Wear

The wear on the rake face of the tool is called crater wear. In crater wear, chips erode the rake
face of the tool. Chips flow across the rake face develop severe friction between the chip and
rake face. It does not degrade the use of tools until it creates cutting-edge failure. Crater depth
is the most commonly used parameter in evaluating rake face wear. It occurs at a height equal
to the cutting depth of the material, At high-temperature zones (nearly 700°C) crater wear
occurs.

Nose Wear

Nose wear occurs due to abrasion between the nose and the metal machinability. It is
considered a part of flank wear as there is no specific boundary between them. It is also called
corner wear.

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Notch Wear

Notch wear on the trailing edge is largely an oxidation wear mechanism where the cutting edge
releases the machined workpiece material in the feed direction. Notch wear is caused by the
tool rubbing against the original work surface, which is harder than a machined.

Mechanisms of Tool Wear

❖ Abrasion
❖ Adhesion
❖ Oxidation
❖ Surface-fatigue

(b) List the advantages and disadvantages of EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining).

Advantages of EDM

• It can be used for any hard material and even in the heat-treated condition.
• Any complicated shapes made on the tool can be reproduced.
• High accuracy of about 0.005 mm can be achieved.
• It can be used for any hard material and even in heat-treated condition.
• Any complicated shapes made on the tool can be reproduced.
• Higher tool life due to proper lubrication and cooling.
Disadvantages of EDM

• Excessive tool wear.

• High power consumption.
• The sharp corner cannot be reproduced.
• High heat developing causing the change in metallurgical properties of materials.
• The workpiece must be an electrical conductor.

Applications of EDM

• It is used for producing hole size less than 0.1 mm

• Used for die sinking or die manufacturing.
• Holes in the air brakes or Pneumatic Brakes were done by an electrical discharge
machining process.

29
4. (a) What is flushing, and explain any two methods of flushing in the EDM process.

Flushing is the process of ensuring effective escapement of debris from the sparking gap
produced during melting and evaporation. There are several flushing strategies used in EDM,
each offers specific benefits over others. Pressure flushing, vacuum flushing, jet flushing, side
flushing, reciprocating electrode flushing, centrifugal flushing, are typical flushing techniques.
In pressure flushing (also called injection flushing), fresh dielectric liquid is pumped into the
inter-electrode gap, which automatically displaces the used contaminated dielectric.

Methods of Flushing

Flushing methods are classified in to four types such as:

1. Normal flow

2. Reverse flow

3. Jet flushing

4. Immersion flushing

30
(b) What are the functions of dielectric fluid in EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining).

Dielectric in EDM has insulating properties but when some potential energy is applied across
a small thickness of dielectric, it gets ionised in that area and results in sparks between the
terminals. Those sparks cause material to melt and the material is removed from the workpiece.
We can say that it helps in creating an ionised field for the maching process to take place. The
following are the functions that takes place such as:

• It should act as an insulator until the required breakdown voltage attained.

• It should act as a conductor, once the breakdown voltages are reached.
• It should clean the spark gap by carrying away the molten metal.
• It should de-ionize the spark gap rapidly after the discharge has occurred.
• It should cool the tool, work piece and the spark region

5. (a) Explain the working principle of wire cut EDM.

Working Principle

• Wire cut EDM machining works by creating an electrical discharge between the wire
or the electrode and the work piece. As the spark jumps across the gap, material is then
removed from the work piece and the electrode.
• Due to the inherent properties of the process, Wire EDM can easily machine complex
parts and precision components out of hard conductive materials.
• To stop the sparking process from shorting out, a non-conductive fluid or dielectric is
also used in the process. The waste material is removed by the dielectric, and the
process continues.

31
 • EDM cutting is always through the entire workpiece. To start wire machining, it is first
necessary to drill a hole in the workpiece or start from the edge. On the machining area,
each discharge creates a crater in the workpiece and an impact on the tool.
• The wire can be inclined, thus making it possible to make parts with taper or with
different profiles at the top and bottom. There is never any mechanical contact between
the electrode and workpiece (see above).
• The wire is usually made of brass or stratified copper, and is between 0.1 and 0.3 mm
diameter. Depending on the accuracy and surface finish needed, a part will either be
one cut or it will be roughed and skimmed.
• On a one cut the wire ideally passes through a solid part and drops a slug or scrap piece
when it is done. This will give adequate accuracy for some jobs, but most of the time,
skimming is necessary.

(b) With a neat sketch, explain the working of a Wire Electrical Discharge Machining
Process (WEDM).

Wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), also known as wire-EDM, is an improved

modification of EDM. These machines have prolonged manufacturing rate with a material
cutting ability of 21 mm2/min. In the present era, WEDM is a well-recognized non-traditional
method capable of satisfying different machining requirements desired by production
industries. Newly established advance WEDM is supplied with fully automatic control and
monitoring method. These machines have an affinity to cut the different materials 20 times
faster as compared to early established mechanisms. The invention of 5-axis CNC WEDM is
the best innovative advancement in the machining process, which influences different precision
and machine tool manufacturing industries.

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A schematic diagram of WEDM is shown in Figure. WEDM is suitable for cutting complex
three-dimensional profiles with the least conductivity, around 0.01 s/cm, and temperatures up
to 45°. In present days, microfeatures having superior SF, accurate tolerances, and higher
properties are essential requirements of manufacturing industries. To achieve all these
requirements, WEDM having a wire diameter of less than or equal to 80 μm has been
introduced. This machining process helps to improve machining accuracy and reduce surface
roughness.

6. (a) List the advantages and disadvantages of WIRE Electrical Discharge machining.

Advantages

• High Accuracy for 2-axis cutting of small components.

• High precision tolerances cutting.
• Cutting without any thermal cutting effect on material or we can say burn-free cuts
• Suitable for cutting complex shapes.
• Cutting of material having low hardness or very high hardness- hardness of material
does not matter.
• As many as 10 electrodes are often used at one time

Disadvantages

• This process has the higher cost.

• It requires high operator skills.
• It is complicated in setup.

Applications

• Blanking punches and extrusion dies.

• Automotive and aerospace parts and components
• Implantable medical devices
• Prototypes proof of concept builds
• Small hole drilling on hard and soft materials

(b) What are the functions and properties of Dielectric

Functions of the Dielectric

The following are essential functions of a dielectric used in the EDM machining process:

33
 • The dielectric must remain electrically non-conductive to the time when the breakdown
voltage is reached (i.e. its dielectric strength must be high)

• Once the breakdown voltage is attained, instantly, it should breakdown electrically.

• The dielectric fluid must deionize the spark gap (i.e. after the discharge has occurred,
it must quench the spark rapidly)

• It carries away the metal particles removed from the arc gap.

• The dielectric fluid acts as a good cooling medium.

Properties of Dielectric

The dielectric must possess the following properties to act as a good dielectric medium and
meet various functional requirements:

• High level of electrical strength for proper insulation

• High fire and flashpoints in order to prevent fire hazards
• Good wetting properties and low viscosity
• Chemically neutral in order to prevent corrosion
• Non-toxic in nature
• Low decomposition rate for a high life expectancy
• Low cost
• Good quenching properties

7. Explain the parameters for improved the Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)
process.

Factors Affecting the Accuracy Of EDM

In EDM machining, the discharge gap can be compensated by correcting the electrode size to
obtain higher machining accuracy. However, the size of the discharge gap changes, which
affects the machining accuracy. The following are factors affecting the accuracy of EDM:

i. Surface roughness

The roughness of the EDM machined surface depends on the depth of the electric discharge
pits and the uniformity of their distribution. Only when shallow and uniformly distributed
electric discharge pits are produced on the machined surface, can the machined surface have a
smaller roughness value.

34
ii. The influence of machining clearance (side clearance)

The size and consistency of the machining gap directly affects the accuracy of EDM machining.
Only by grasping the value of the machining gap and surface roughness of each standard, can
we correctly design the size of the electrode, determine the amount of shrinkage, and determine
the standard conversion during the machining process.

iii. The influence of machining slope

In machining, regardless of the hole or cavity, the side wall has a slope. The reason for the
slope is that, in addition to the original slope of the electrode side wall itself in the technical
requirements or manufacturing, it is generally caused by the uneven loss of the electrode. , And
"secondary discharge" and other factors.

iv. The influence of machining depth

As the processing depth increases, the processing slope increases, but not proportionally. When
the processing depth exceeds a certain value, the upper mouth size of the processed part will
no longer expand, that is, the processing slope will no longer increase. Different processing
objects have different requirements for processing inclination.

v. Material removal rate (MRR):

The MRR of the workpiece was measured by dividing the machined volume of the workpiece
by the machining time that was achieved. After completion of each machining process, the
workpiece was cleaned thoroughly by compressed air using air gun to ensure freedom from
debris and dielectric fluid.

vi. Electrode wear ratio (EWR%):

The electrode wear rate (EWR) of the electrode was measured by dividing the machined
volume of the electrode by the machining time that was achieved. After completion of each
machining process, the electrode was cleaned thoroughly by compressed air using air gun to
ensure freedom from debris and dielectric fluid. In addition to that the graphite was roasted
after each process by placing it in the oven at 180C0 to ensure no dielectric fluid were present.
The weight of the electrode was measured using a precise balance. And then the EWR% was
measured by dividing the EWR by the MRR that have been previously measured.

vii. Effect of electrode material on the performance measurements

35
In EDM, the electrical energy is used to generate an electrical spark possessing thermal energy.
The workpiece material removal is the result of the thermal energy of the spark. The right
selection of the electrode material controls the transport of the electrical current to the
workpiece. Thus, the selection of the electrode material plays a significant role in this process,
owing to its thermo-physical properties, though the non-thermal properties are not negligible.
The peak current causes the occurrence of a crater after the break down of the open circuit
voltage. The occurrence of this phenomenon is only possible when the cathode electrode starts
to emit electrons, when the emitted electrons from the cathode collide with the molecules of
the dielectric fluid releasing more electrons together with the positive ions.

8. With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of an electrical discharge grinding
(EDG) process.

Electrical discharge grinding (EDG) is a non-traditional thermal process for machining hard
and brittle electrically conductive materials. Electrical discharge grinding is similar to electric
discharge machining, but with the tool in the form of a rotating conductive wheel and with
lower currents.

Working principle

In EDG process, an electrically conductive wheel is used as a tool electrode instead of

stationary tool electrode used in EDM. In this process, a rotating electrically conductive
metallic wheel is used which is known as grinding wheel. The grinding wheel used in this
process, having no any abrasive particles and rotates its horizontal axis. Due to the similarities

36
of process with conventional grinding and material is removed due to the electrical discharge,
it is known as electrical discharge grinding (EDG). The details of EDG process have been
illustrated in Figure.

In this process, the spark is generated between rotating wheel and work piece. The rotating
wheel and workpiece both are separated by dielectric fluid and during machining both
(workpiece and wheel) are continuously deeper into dielectric fluid. The dielectric fluids are
mainly Kerosene oil, Paraffin oil, Transformer oil or de-ionized water. The main purpose of
dielectric is to make a conductive channel during ionization when suitable breakdown voltage
is applied. The servo control mechanism utilized to maintain the constant gap between
workpiece and wheel in range of 0.013-0.075 mm. A pulse generator is used for maintaining
the DC pulse power supply in ranges of voltage, current and frequency are 30-400V, 30-100A
and 2-500 kHz respectively. Due to spark, high temperature generated between ranges of 8000
°C to 12000° C or as so high up to 20000° C by each spark resulting material is meted from
both electrodes. Due to the high flushing efficiency, the molten materials flush away in the
form of micro debris from gap and formed the crater on work surface. In field of EDG for
machining difficult machine materials. In this process, a rotating electrically conductive wheel
is used for spark erosion and simultaneously enhances the flushing due to the rotational motion
of the wheel.

9. (a) Give a brief note on the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of the
Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG) process.

Advantages
• Tolerances of +/- 0.005 can be achieved
• Cutting complex shapes and thin walled configurations without distortion
• EDM is a no-contact and no-force process, making it well suited for delicate or fragile
parts that cannot take the stress of traditional machining
• The EDM process leaves no burrs.
Disadvantages
• Only able to grid conductive material
• More expensive process than conventional milling or turning.
• Machining time is too long.
• Excessive tool wear.

37
 • High specific power consumption.
• Profile machining of complex contours is not possible.
Applications
• EDG is particularly famous in small-volume production, which makes several
processes possible. These processes include milling, turning, small hole drilling, and
more.
• Electrical discharge grinding is a quick and unique way to create accurate deep small
holes drilling in materials, regardless of their hardness.
• To produce cutting tools with stable cutting edges and complex features out of very
hard materials.
(b) List out the Parameters that effect EDG and limitations

i. Voltage

In EDM, material removal is performed by applying a pulsating (ON/OFF) high-frequency

current through the electrode to the workpiece.
ii. Capacitance
A resistance-capacitance relaxation circuit is used in an electrical discharge machining process.
The discharge voltage is 100 V. At a spark cycle time of 25 µs, the average Power input
required is 1 kW.
iii. Spindle Speed
Its basic applications are tool and mould manufacturing and high-quality parts exemplary.
Optionally, the spindle speeds are 30,000, 42,000 or 60,000 rpm.
iv. Feed rate
The best combination of machining parameter viz. machine feed rate (4 mm/min), wire-speed
(8 m/min), wire tension (1.4kg) and voltage (60V) were identified. The selection of parameters
depends on the requirements based on a better surface roughness or a maximum material
removal rate.
Limitations

• The workpiece must be an electrical conductor.

• Surface cracking may take place in some materials.
• Redressing of a tool is required for deep holes.
• Over-cut is formed.
• Difficult finding expert machinists.

38
10. Differentiate between EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining) and Electrical
Discharge Grinding (EDG) process.

Electrical Discharge Machining Electrical Discharge Grinding

A form electrode made of electrically conductive A wheel made of electrically conductive
metal is used as cathode. So spark is generated material acts as cathode. No separate
between the form electrode and the conductive electrode is used. Thus spark is generated
workpiece. between the wheel and workpiece.
The electrode usually remains static (it only moves Similar to conventional grinding
slowly as machining progresses). operation, the EDG wheel always rotates
at a fixed rpm about a fixed axis (the wheel
also moves slowly as machining
progresses).
EDM electrode can be given complex shapes. Thus Owing to simple geometry of wheel (disk
several simple and complex profiles or curvatures type), EDG has limited ability in terms of
can be fabricated by EDM. complexity of the profile or feature that
can be produced.
EDM electrode is commonly made of conductive The EDG wheel is commonly made of
metals like copper, brass, tungsten, etc. conductive but non-metallic material like
graphite.
A suitable flushing technique is highly desired for No additional flushing technique is
continuous delivery of fresh dielectric fluid in inter- required as the rotating grinding wheel
electrode gap (IEG). continuously sucks fresh dielectric fluid
into the IEG.
Accumulation of debris in IEG is one major problem Debris is inherently removed from the IEG
in EDM. Dielectric flushing helps removing debris due to wheel rotation.
from IEG.
DG is not a hybrid process. ECG is one hybrid process.
It is one thermal energy based non-conventional ECG is based on electro-chemical energy
machining process. as well as mechanical energy.
Here material removal takes place by melting and Material removal takes place in two
vaporization due to intense localized heat generated different forms (i) ions owing to electro-
by electric spark. chemical reaction and (ii) solid micro-
chips (in very small proportion) due to
mechanical abrasion.

39
 A dielectric is flushed here to assist spark formation A suitable electrolyte is used here to assist
and debris removal. electro-chemical reaction.
The grinding wheel (electrode) is made of Usually metal bonded abrasive wheel is
electrically conductive material like graphite. employed here. Bonding material must be
electrically conductive.
The wheel electrode is always given negative Polarity of the wheel electrode is chosen
polarity. based on the tool-workpiece material
combination and electrolyte.
The grinding wheel does not touch the workpiece. A Physical contact between the grinding
small gap (called inter-electrode gap, IEG) is always wheel and workpiece always exists in
maintained between them. ECG.
This process is free from chip clogging. In fact, so Sometimes chip clogging takes place. De-
called solid chip is not generated here. clogging can be performed just by
reversing the polarity.

UNIT – III

1. Discuss the need for Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) and its applications.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM), characterized as non-traditional machining, is an advanced

machining, non-contact, reverse electroplating process (ECM removes material instead of
depositing it). In ECM, a high electric current is passed between the tool and workpiece through
a conductive fluid. The high current and the conductive fluid are used to ionize and remove the
metal atoms of the workpiece yielding a burr-free surface. This process needs to removing
metal with the help of the electrolysis process. The electrochemical process is also known as
the reverse of the electroplating process because, in electroplating, the metal is deposited on
the surface of the workpiece, while in electrochemical machining the metal is removed from
the workpiece. This process is used for the large-scale production of machined parts.

Electrochemical machining uses both an electrolyte solution and an electrical current to alter
the workpiece. Because electrical conductivity is necessary for electrochemical machining, the
workpiece material must be conductive. Electrochemical machining is the opposite process to
electrochemical or galvanic coating. In electrochemical machining, the workpiece is taken as
the anode, and the tool is taken as the cathode. These are both placed in an electrolyte solution
and an electrical current is passed through the solution between them. The workpiece and tool
are placed very close to each other but are not touching. As the electrical current is applied, the
material removal from the workpiece happens at the atomic level, producing a smooth finish.

40
Limitations

• The process is costly because of expensive equipment.

• A continuous supply of electrolytes is necessary.
• Steady voltage should be maintained during the whole process.
• Corrosion and rust of the ECM machine can be a hazard.
• If hydrogen is liberated at the tool surface, then it is possible to suffer from hydrogen-
embitterment of the surface.
• There may be a possibility of damages because of sparks.
• Conventional machining produced more improved fatigue properties than ECM.
2. (a) Discuss the function of electrolytes in this process of ECM.

When a D.C potential is applied across two electrodes separated by a small gap and an
electrolyte is pumped through the small gap, the constituents of the anode work piece material
go into the solution and not plate on the cathode tool. Electroplating is the reverse of ECM
where the cathode is plated by the depleted metal from the anode. The electrolysis process is
the most fundamental activity of ECM based upon “laws of electrolysis (electroplating)”
formulated by Faraday in 1833.

Electrolysis is a chemical phenomenon that occurs between two conductors dipped in a suitable
solution when an electric current is passed between them. In solid conductors, the current is
carried by electrons. In electrolytes, the current is carried by atoms or a group of atoms. Atoms
are called ions when they acquire positive or negative charge upon losing or gaining electrons
respectively. Positive ions (cations) are attracted by the cathode, in the direction of positive
current through the electrolyte, and negative ions(anions) are attracted to the anode.

41
Reactions at the anode are called anodic reactions. Reactions at the cathode are called catholic
reactions.

Basic reactions for sodium chloride electrolyte:

Disassociation of sodium chloride: NaCl ————→ Na+ + Cl–

Disassociation of water: H2O ————→ H+ + OH–

Cathodic Reactions: Hydrogen ions take away electrons from the cathode (tool) to form H2
gas.

2H+ + 2e– ————→ H2↑

Only H2 gas is evolved at the cathode. The electrode shape remains unaltered during the
electrolysis process, which is the most significant feature of the ECM process.

Anodic Reactions:

• Iron comes out of the workpiece (anode) as iron ions

• Fe ————→ Fe++ + 2e–
The sludge from the tank is taken out and separated out from the electrolyte using the
centrifuge. The electrolyte, after going through the filtration process in filters, again transported
to the reservoir tank to be pumped for the machining process.

(b) What are the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Electro Chemical
Machining?

Advantages:

• This machining process removes metal uniformly.

• Good surface finish with close tolerances.
• Complex contours can be easily machined.
• Low initial cost.
• Low machining cost.

Disadvantages:

• Process is not eco-friendly.

• Disposal of by-products can cause harm to the surrounding.
• Material Removal Rate (MRR) is less in comparison with other machining processes.

42
 • It can machine very complicated surface.
• ECM gives very high surface finish.

Applications

• Weight reduction of complex contours, impossible by conventional methods.

• Machining of thin and delicate components.
• Used in automobile and aviation industries.
• Making of fine screens and meshes.

3. Explain the parts and working principle of chemical machining with a neat sketch.

The chemical machining process is also knowns as the Etching process. Chemical machining
is a process of material removal to obtain a desired shape on the workpiece by dipping the
workpiece into a strong chemical reagent.

It consists of the following parts:

• Tank
• Heating coil
• Stirrer and
• Workpiece

1. Tank:

This process has a tank with its face open. The tank is built of strong metal coated with
materials that are non-reactive to etchant depending on the applications and concentration of
chemical reagent.

43
2. Heating coil:

A heating coil is mounted at the lowest section of the tank to maintain the temperature of the
tank at a constant level. It is practical that in any metal removal process the heat generation is
natural. Also, the coil does cool in necessary conditions.

3. Stirrer:

A stirrer is placed in the etchant whose main purpose is to mix the etchant consistently to
maintain a uniform concentration and heat along the volume of the etchant. It is well known to
us that the hot particles always accumulate at the top, leaving the cold below. So, to spread the
heat uniformly along the etchant, the stirrer is used. The stirrer also helps in the flushing of
dissolved metal from the workpiece simultaneously breaking the bubbles formed during
machining due to oxidation.

4. Workpiece:

The workpiece is held in the etchant by using a hanger in the case of small applications. The
length of the hanger is fastened over a masked area so that the fixing of the workpiece does not
disturb the machining zone. In the case of a larger workpiece, fixtures coated with rubbers and
polymers are used to hold the workpiece.

Working Principle

It involves four major processes performed in a series:

44
i. Cleaning:

Cleaning is a preparatory process to ensure that the surface of the workpiece is free from
contaminants, rust, and foreign particles. It is usually performed by high-pressure water jets,
alcoholic solutions, and diluted HCl.

ii. Maskant:

Maskant can is defined as a material used to coat the workpiece for preventing the portion of
the workpiece from etching. It is a process of applying maskant over the surface of the
workpiece. A layer of polymer or rubber is coated on the workpiece.

iii. Etchant:

The etchant can be defined as a mixture of chemical acids diluted or concentrated that can react
with metal and dissolve it. This is the process in which the required metal removal takes place.
After perfect masking, the workpiece is dipped into the tank of the chemical reagent with the
heater and the stirrer turned ON.

iv. Demasking:

Demasking is a process of peeling off the maskant that was applied before the etching process.
Once the maskant is removed from the workpiece, the workpiece is again sent to cleaning
operation where any leftover etchant is washed away by pressurized cold water. The workpiece
is then dried up and ready for final dispatch.

4. Draw the schematic layout of the Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) set-up and
explain the major elements in it.

Figure. Schematic representation of Electrochemical machining process

45
Electrochemical Machining Parts or Construction:

• Power supply
• Electrolyte
• Workpiece, Tool
• Feed Unit, Tank
• Workpiece holding table
• Pressure gauge
• Flowmeter
• Flow control valve
• Pressure relief valve
• Pump

Power supply:

Voltage must be kept low to avoid short-circuit because the gap between the tool and
workpiece is low for high-pitched correctness.

Electrolyte:

Electrolytes are conductive fluid and are selected in parity with electrodes. Some electrolyte-
electrodes combination is given below:

• Sodium chloride (NaCl) at a concentration of 20% is used for ferrous alloys.

• Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is used for ferrous alloys.
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is used for Nickel alloys.

Work piece:

A workpiece is an object that needs to be machined from which material goes into the
solution. The workpiece is made the anode in ECM. The material removal rate or machining
is only dependent upon the atomic weight and valency of the work material.

Tool:

The tool is used to remove material from the workpiece. It is made the cathode and connected
to the negative terminal of the power supply.

Available material for tool-making: Copper, Brass, Titanium, Copper-tungsten, Stainless

steel, Aluminium, Graphite, Bronze, Platinum, Tungsten Carbide.

46
Feed Unit:

The servo motor is used to provide the controlled feed to the tool for material removal from
the workpiece. Feed rate is 0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min.

Pump:

The pump helps in circulating the electrolyte. The rate of pumping and pressure at which
electrolytes will be pumped should be decided beforehand depending on the application or
requirement of the process.

Working Principle:

• First, the workpiece is assembled in the fixture and the tool is brought close to the
workpiece. The tool and workpiece is immersed in a suitable electrolyte.
• After that, a potential difference is applied across the w/p (anode) and tool (cathode).
The removal of material starts. The material is removed in the same manner as we have
discussed above in the working principle.
• Tool feed system advances the tool towards the w/p and always keeps a required gap in
between them. The material from the w/p comes out as positive ions and combine with
the ions present in the electrolyte and precipitates as sludge. Hydrogen gas is liberated
at the cathode during the machining process.
• Since the dissociation of the material from the w/p takes place at atomic level, so it
gives excellent surface finish.
• The sludge from the tank is taken out and separated from the electrolyte. The electrolyte
after filtration again transported to the tank for the ECM process.

5. (a) Write the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Electro Chemical

Machining (ECM).

Electrochemical Machining Advantages

1. Negligible tool wear.

2. Complex and concave curvature parts can be produced easily by the use of convex and
concave tools.
3. No forces and residual stress are produced, because there is no direct contact between
tool and workpiece.
4. An excellent surface finish is produced.

47
 5. Less heat is generated.

Electrochemical Machining Dis-advantages

1. The risk of corrosion for tool, w/p and equipment increases in the case of saline and
acidic electrolyte.
2. Electrochemical machining is capable of machining electrically conductive materials
only.
3. High power consumption.
4. High initial investment cost.

Applications

• The ECM process is used for die sinking operation, profiling and contouring, drilling,
grinding, trepanning and micro machining.
• It is used for machining steam turbine blades within closed limits.

(b) Discuss the types and significant techniques used for Chemical Machining Operations.

i. Chemical milling (CM):

This operation is performed to obtain pockets, contours on the workpiece or to remove bulk
material from the workpiece.

ii. Chemical engraving (CE):

This operation is performed to reproduce a special design on a workpiece with a lot of

precision. E.g., titles, brand names, serial numbers, etc.

iii. Chemical polishing (CP):

This operation is performed to make up a fine finishing or deburring of the workpiece. This is
possible by using of usage of lighter diluted chemical reagent.

iv. Photochemical machining (PCM):

Photochemical machining is a process of manufacturing stress-free and crack-free components.

PCM is used where micro details are to be machined on a workpiece. This process uses
Chemical machining (CHM) as its primary technique to remove material and photo-resistive
masks for designing purposes. PCM is an advanced machining process whose root is Chemical
machining.

48
6. (a) Explain the working principle of Electro Chemical Machining (ECM) process.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) is based upon Faraday's law of electrolysis. Faraday's law
states that the the mass of a metal altered by the electrode is proportional to the quantity of
electrical charges transferred to that electrode.

• A potential difference is maintained between the electrodes as a result ions existing in

the electrolytes migrate towards the electrodes.
• Conventionally positively charged ions are attracted towards the cathode and negative
ions are attached towards to the anode. And thus flow of current is initiated in the
electrolyte.
• The set-up is kept stationary and tool is fed linearly.
• The desired amount of metal is removed because of ion migration towards the tool.
• For keeping the tool safe from damage a continuous supply of electrolyte is ensured by
pumping it at high pressure (15kg/cm2).
• In this process the temperature generated is very low and no spark is produced and thus
there isn't any scope of metallurgical changes in the job.
• When electricity is supplied to the metallic ions of the w/p is pulled out. The positive
ions of the metal reacts with the negative ions present on the electrolytic solution and
hydroxides of metal and other components. This hydroxides are precipitated and
washed away by the electrolytic solutions.
• In Electrochemical Machining the tool and workpiece doesn't come in direct contact
with each other so negligible wear and tear is observed.
• Metal removal rate is high and voltage supplied is very low. The metallic workpiece is
not damaged due to thermal stresses. Dimensions up to 0.05 mm can easily machined .

(b) List out the major techniques used in the Chemical machining process.

(i) Cut and Peel:

In this technique, the workpiece to be machined is first dipped into a tank of liquid maskant,
similar to coating. Once the cutting operation is done, the maskant is removed from the areas
to be etched. Thus, the cut and peel masking technique works. Materials used in the cut and
peel masking technique are Vinyl, neoprene rubber, butyl base materials, bee wax, Burgundy
pitch applied by flow or dip or by spray coating. The thickness of these maskants ranges from
0.03 to 0.13 mm.

49
(ii) Screen Printing:

This technique makes use of conventional silk-screen print technology. In this mask
application, fine mesh silk or stainless-steel screens are deployed on the workpiece. Then, a
layer of maskant is rolled on the whole of the workpiece. The adhering of maskant on the
workpiece is achieved by drying and baking, Once the maskant adheres to the workpiece, the
installed meshes are removed from the workpiece, which results in the removal of the mask
from the areas to be machined. The mask thickness is always less than 0.05 mm. This maskant
technique is best suitable for parts less than 1.2m × 1.2m with flat surfaces and moderate
contours.

(iii) Photo resist:

The photo-resist masking technique is exercised in the Photochemical machining process only.
This technique is so versatile in this autonomous era. The use of the photo-resist masking
technique switches the process of chemical machining into a different non-traditional
machining process i.e., the Photochemical machining (PCM) process. In this technique, a
picture of the end product design is printed on a film of photo-sensitive material. The film has
a character to attract and reflect the rays of ultraviolet light.

7. Explain the parts and working principle of the Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG)
process with a schematic diagram.

50
Various parts involved in an electrochemical grinding setup are as follows:

• DC power supply
• Work Table and fixture
• Electrolyte tank
• Pump
• Filter
• Pressure Gauge and flow meter:
• Nozzle
• Sleeve
• Grinding wheel and
• Collecting tank

DC Power supply:

A DC power supply with low voltage and high current is used for providing electrical energy
to the setup. The voltage is kept low to avoid the generation of heat and for safety purposes as
well. High current on the other hand promotes a faster process.

Work Table and Fixture:

For any machining process, it is important to provide a rigid base and restrict all the degrees of
freedom of the workpiece. The worktable provides rigid support to the workpiece and fixtures
are used to clamp the workpiece.

Electrolyte tank:

An electrolyte tank is a reservoir in which the electrolyte is stored. An electrolyte is a

conducting solution that plays an important role in electrochemical grinding. The first function
of electrolyte is to complete the circuit by providing a conducting medium.

Pump:

A pump is used to carry the electrolyte from the electrolyte tank to the nozzle. The pump used
is generally electrically driven.

Filter:

The electrolyte passes through a filter where all the micro impurities get filtered and pure
Electrolyte is obtained.

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Pressure Gauge and flow meter:

Pressure gauge and flow meter are safety equipment that shows pressure and flow of the
electrolyte respectively. If any of these values become more than the safety limit the operator
simply turns off the equipment.

Nozzle:

A nozzle is a device with decreasing cross-section area, which is used to direct the electrolyte
to the correct position. The decreasing area helps in increasing the velocity of the electrolyte
which in turn removes the material from the workpiece.

Sleeve:

A sleeve is used to transfer electrical energy to the grinding wheel.

Grinding wheel:

The grinding wheel is the most important and unique part of the electrochemical grinding
machine. It is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply and acts as the cathode.

Collecting tank:

A collecting tank is used to collect all the used electrolyte which is then disposed or reused as
per the requirement.

Working principle of electrochemical grinding

Step-by step process:

• The workpiece to be machined is first kept on the worktable and then clamped using
fixtures.
• The grinding wheel is placed at the required position. A gap is maintained between the
workpiece and the grinding wheel. This gap is generally 0.02mm.
• Now the power supply is switched on. The pump is then driven to supply the electrolyte
to the required position.
• At first, the electrolyte passes through a filter where all the impurities are filtered. Then
the electrolyte is passed through a pressure gauge where the operator checks for the
correct pressure. Then electrolyte is passed through a flow meter where flow is checked
by the operator.

52
 • After passing through all the stages the electrolyte reaches the nozzle. Nozzle increases
the velocity of the electrolyte and sprays it over the workpiece.
• As soon as the electrolyte comes in contact with the workpiece and the grinding wheel,
the circuit is completed which results in Oxidation of the metal surface.
• This forms a layer of oxide which is removed by the flow of electrolyte and the Abrasive
particles in the grinding wheel. After the grinding is done, the flow is stopped and the
power supply is switched off. The workpiece is then unclamped and the remaining
electrolyte is wiped out from the surface.

8. (a) Write short note on electrolytes used in Electro Chemical Machining (ECM).

Generally, sodium nitrate is the electrolyte that is used for machining purpose in Electro
chemical grinding. ECM is an electrolytic process which works on the basis of anodic
dissolution of the workpiece. Electrolysis is the passing of the current between two electrodes
in an electrically conductive solution, called an electrolyte, which completes the circuit. A
simple example of an electrolytic process is between an impure copper anode and a pure copper
cathode in a temperature-controlled, quiescent solution of copper sulphate (CuSO4) with a
constant current source connecting the two electrodes. Copper atoms from the anode are
dissolved and travel through the electrolyte to the cathode where it is subsequently deposited.
The copper ions move through the solution via several mechanisms. The first being diffusion;
diffusion is the movement of ions within a solution influenced by concentration gradients. Ions
move from areas with higher concentrations to lower concentrations in an attempt to equalise
the concentration throughout the solution. In this case, the concentration of copper ions at the
anode surface is much higher than the concentration of copper ions in the bulk of the solution;
hence, the copper ions diffuse away from the anode towards the bulk solution and the copper
cathode. The concentration of copper ions at the cathode surface is lower than the bulk
concentration because copper ions are consumed at the cathode surface. The copper ions also
travel through the solution via migration; migration is the movement of ions due to a potential
field.

The noteworthy feature of electrolysis is that electrical energy is used to produce a chemical
reaction, therefore, the machining process based on this principle is known as Electrochemical
machining (ECM). This process works on the principle of of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
Michael Faraday discovered that if the two electrodes are placed in a bath containing a
conductive liquid and DC potential (5-25V) is applied across them, metal can be depleted from

53
the anode and plated on the cathode. This principle was in use for long time. ECM is the reverse
of the electroplating. ECM can be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level of
the work piece that is electrically conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high current at
relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte which is quite often water based
neutral salt solution.
The reactions happening at the electrodes during copper electrolysis are as follows

• At the anode: Cu→Cu2++2e−

• At the cathode: Cu2++2e−→Cu

(b) Discuss the surface finish and accuracy of Electro Chemical Machining (ECM).

Surface Finish

The resultant surface finish from ECM is dependent on a number of parameters. The type of
workpiece material, heat treatment, and grain size are all parameters determined by the part
design. The type, concentration, temperature, Ph, and flow of electrolyte all are parameters
determined by the process needs. Power supply voltage and available amperage are the
electrical parameters. Feed rate and cathode design determine the current density along with
the maximum amperage.

The part material is determined by the design requirements. This is a given parameter usually
out of the control of the ECM manufacturer. Higher temperature materials will have a better
finish in general than lower temperature materials. Nickel, Cobalt, and Chrome materials all
usually result in very good finishes. Wrought materials usually have a better finish than cast
alloys. Highly alloyed titanium alloys usually have a rougher finish than less alloyed titanium
alloys because of the varying breakdown voltage of the various metals. Materials such as
titanium aluminide or carbon whisker reinforced materials all need special considerations in
the ECM process because of the non-conductive particles. In general, the finer the grain size
the better the surface finish. Because this is an “etching” process, the material tends to follow
grain boundaries as the material is dissolved. Very fine grain material will usually give a very
smooth finish. In some instances, a very large grain or single grain alloys, the grains are so
large that the surface is does not follow the boundary resulting in very good finishes.

Accuracy of ECM

It is important to know the effect of ECM on the mechanical properties of electrochemically

machined parts. This will greatly affect the acceptability of the process in different industries.

54
Hardly any evidence is available about the hydrogen embrittlement of the ECM components.
The basic reason being that hydrogen is evolved at cathode while metal removal is taking place
due to anodic dissolution at the anode.

It has been reported that there is no effect of ECM on ductility, yield strength, ultimate strength,
and micro hardness of the machined component. Surface layers damaged during conventional
machining or by some other processes, may be removed by ECM and this may result in
improvement in the properties of the work material. However, such removal of layers from the
work surface reduces fatigue strength of a conventionally machined components. The
conventionally machined surfaces have compressive residual stresses responsible for higher
fatigue strength. This fact has been verified experimentally. However, the required fatigue
strength can be restored by further appropriate post mechanical finishing treatment.

9. (a) Write the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Electro Chemical Grinding
(ECG).

Advantages:

• The accuracy of electrochemical grinding is very high.

• A high tolerance can be obtained.
• The process does not leave any scratches on the surface of the workpiece.
• The heat generated during the operation is very less.
• The electrolyte also acts as a coolant.
• There are no internal stresses developed in the workpiece.
• Hard materials can be grinded easily.

Disadvantages:

• The metal removal rate is low, about 15mm/s

• Power consumption is very high as there is a need to drive the grinding wheel and pump
as well.
• The initial cost of the equipment is also high.
• The production rate is low.
• A large area is required for setup

55
Applications of Electrochemical Grinding

• ECG is used for grinding turbine blades.

• It is used in aerospace industries for grinding honeycomb.
• Also used for finishing hard surfaces.
• It is also used for creating sharp objects.
• It is also used for grinding fragile articles.

(b) Write a short note on Electrochemical honing (ECH) and the tool construction process

i. ECH is a process in which the metal removal capabilities of ECM are combined with
the accuracy capabilities of honing. The process consists of a rotating and reciprocating
tool inside a cylindrical component.
ii. Material is removed through anodic dissolution and mechanical abrasion – 8% or more,
of the material removal, occurs through electrolytic action
iii. As with conventional ECM, the workpiece is the anode and a stainless-steel tool is the
cathode.

ECH tool construction

• Tool consists of a hollow stainless-steel body that has expandable, nonconductive

honing stones protruding from at least three locations around the circumference
• The honing stones are identical with those used in conventional honing operations,
except that they must resist the corrosiveness of the electrolyte
• The honing stones are mounted on the tool body with a spring-loaded mechanism so
that each of the stones exerts equal pressure against the workpiece
• The length of the stones is approximately one-half of the length of the bore being
processed.

56
10 (a) Explain the working principle of the Electro-Chemical Honing (ECH) process with
a schematic diagram and specify the parameters.

Working of electrochemical honing:

Figure. Representation of electrochemical honing

At the beginning of the ECH cycle, the stones protrude only 0.075-0.127mm from the stainless-
steel body, establishing the gap through which the electrolyte flows. The electrolyte enters the
tool body via a sliding inlet sleeve from which it exits into the tool-workpiece gap through
small holes in the tool body. After passing through the gap, the electrolyte flows from the
workpiece through the gap at the top and bottom of the bore. The mechanical action of the tool
is the same as with conventional honing; the tool is rotated and reciprocated so that the stones
abrade the entire length of the bore.

Electrolytes used in ECH are essentially the same as those used in ECM, although the control
of pH, composition and sludge is less critical because the abrasive action of the stones tends to
correct any resulting surface irregularities. As in ECM, the electrolytes are recirculated and
reused after passing through appropriate filtration, and the most commonly used electrolytes
are sodium chloride and sodium nitrate.

Process parameters of electrochemical honing:

• Machines are available that deliver up to 6000 amp

• Current density at the workpiece can range from 12 to 47amp/cm 2
• Working voltages are 6-30 VDC
• The electrolyte is delivered to the work area at pressures of 0.5-1 MPa

57
 • Machine capacities are currently able to accommodate bore lengths up to 600 mm
and bore diameters from 9.5 to 150 mm.

(b) Write the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Electro Chemical Honing
(ECH).

Advantages of electrochemical honing:

▪ Increased MRR particularly on hard materials

▪ Unlike conventional honing, no micro-scratches are left on the work surface
▪ Less pressure required between stones and work
▪ Reduced noise and distortion when honing thin-walled tubes
▪ Cooler action leading to increased accuracy with less material damage
▪ Capable of achieving surface finishes of 0.05μ and dimensional accuracies of
±0.012mm

Disadvantages of electrochemical honing:

• High capital cost

• Corrosive environment
• High preventive maintenance cost
• Non-conductive materials cannot be machined
• Requires disposal and filtering of electrolytes

Applications

• It is widely used for finishing cylinders and gears

• It is based on the combination of electrochemical machining and conventional honing
process.
• ECH is a well-known process for difficult-to-cut and hard materials as long as it is
electrically conductive

58
 UNIT – IV

1. Draw the schematic layout of Electron Beam Machining (EBM) set up and explain the
major elements in it.
Electron beam machining is a thermal process used for metal removal during the machining
process. In electrical beam machining, electrical energy is used to generate high-energy
electrons. In the Electron Beam Machining process, a high-velocity focused beam of electrons
is used to remove the metal from the workpiece. These electrons travel at half the velocity of
light i.e., 1.6 x 108 m/s. This process is best suited for the micro-cutting of materials.

Figure. Schematic layout of EBM Process

The parts of Electron Beam Machining are as follows.

(a) Electron gun:

The major part of the electron beam machining process is the Electron gun which acts as a
cathode and contains tungsten or tantalum filament that generates the beam of electrons to
remove the material from the surface of a workpiece.

(b) Vacuum chamber:

It is used such that there is no possibility of air in the setup.

59
(c) Grid cup:

The electrons which were generated by the electron gun was been controlled by the grid cup.

(d) Anode:

To accelerate the electrons to a much high velocity, anode is used in the experimental setup.

(e) Lens:

Their main aim is to allow the beam of convergent electrons to pass through it and they are
used to focus the beam of light on a particular spot.

(f) Deflector Coils:

Deflector coil guides the high-velocity electron beam onto the desired location of the workpiece
maintaining efficiency for the formation of holes.

2. (a) Explain the working principle of the Electron beam machining process

Working Principle

• When the high voltage DC source is given to the electron gun, tungsten filament wire
gets heated and the temperature raises up to 2500°C.
• Due to this high temperature, electrons are emitted from tungsten filament. These
electrons are directed by a grid cup to travel towards downwards and they are attracted
by the anode.
• The electrons passing through the anode are accelerated to achieve high velocity as half
the velocity of light (i.e., 1.6 x 108 m/s) by applying 50 to 200 kV at the anode.
• The high velocity of these electrons is maintained until they strike the workpiece. It
becomes possible because the electrons
• travel through the vacuum.
• This high-velocity electron beam, after leaving the anode, passes through the tungsten
diaphragm and then through the electromagnetic focusing lens.
• Focusing lenses are used to focus the electron beam on the desired spot of the
workpiece.
• When the electron beam impacts on the workpiece surface, the kinetic energy of high-
velocity electrons is immediately converted into the heat energy. This high-intensity
heat melts and vaporizes the work material at the spot of beam impact.

60
 • Since the power density is very high (about 6500 billionW/mm ^2), it takes few
microseconds to melt and vaporize the material on impact.
• This process is carried out in repeated pulses of short duration. The pulse frequency
may range from 1 to 16,000 Hz and duration may range from 4 to 65,000 microseconds.
• By alternately focusing and turning off the electron beam, the cutting process can be
continued as long as it is needed.
• A suitable viewing device is always incorporated with the machine. So, it becomes easy
for the operator to observe the progress of the machining operation.

(b) Write the advantages, disadvantages Electron Beam Machining (EBM).

Advantages:

• It is an excellent process for micro finishing (milligram/ s).

• Very small holes can be machined in any type of material to high accuracy.
• Holes of different sizes and shapes can be machined.
• There is no mechanical contact between the tool and the workpiece.
• Very small size holes can be produced.
• Highly reactive metals can be machined easily because of perfect vacuum is
maintained.
• Heat affected zone will be minimum.

Disadvantages

• The metal removal rate is very slow.

• The cost of equipment is very high.
• It is not suitable for large workpieces.
• High skilled operators are required to operate this machine.
• High specific energy consumption.

Applications

• Mainly used for producing holes in the diesel injection nozzles.

• Drilling of holes in pressure differential devices used in nuclear reactors, aircraft
engines, etc.
• It is used for removing small broken taps from holes.

61
 • Micro-drilling operations (up to 0.002 mm) for thin orifices, dies for wire drawing,
parts of electron microscopes, injector nozzles for diesel engines, etc.
• A micromachining technique known as “Electron beam lithography” is being used in
the manufacture of field emission cathodes, integrated circuits, and computer
memories.
• It is particularly useful for machining of materials of low thermal conductivity and high
melting point.

3. Explain the working principle of the Ion Beam Machining (IBM) process with a
schematic diagram.

Ion beam machining (IBM) is an important non-conventional manufacturing technology used

in micro-/nanofabrication, using a stream of accelerated ions by electrical means in a vacuum
chamber to remove, add, or modify the atoms on the surface of the object.

Working principle of Ion Beam Machining

• Ion beam machining (IBM) is an atomic-bit machining process, which is used to

machine a product with a high resolution of the order of 0.1 μm. Ions of inert gases like
argon with high kinematic energy of the order of 10 KeV are used to bombard and eject
atoms from the workpiece surface by elastic collision.
• In IBM a stream of charged atoms (ions) of inert gas, such as argon, is accelerated in a
vacuum by high energies and directed toward a solid workpiece. The beam removes

62
 atoms from the workpiece by transferring energy and momentum to atoms on the
surface of the object.
• When an atom strikes a cluster of atoms on the workpiece, it dislodges between 0.1 and
10 atoms from the workpiece material. IBM permits the accurate machining of virtually
any material and is used in the semiconductor industry and in the manufacture of
aspheric lenses.
• The technique is also used for texturing surfaces to enhance bonding, for producing
atomically clean surfaces on devices such as laser mirrors, and for modifying the
thickness of thin films and membranes.
• Unlike machine tool technologies of cutting, grinding, and lapping, IBM has no
inherent reference surface; patterning mask acts as a reference. IBM could be used as
micromachining with a micro-ion beam of 1–2 μm diameter together with a high-
precision position control machine tool.
• IBM can also be used for aphorizing lenses, sharpening of diamond microtones knives
and cutting tools, IC pattern etching, etc. The cost of an IBM machine is very high,
which increases the machining cost and makes the process uneconomical.

Ion Beam Machining Accuracy

Practical etching rates vary up to 2000 A (2 x 10-4 mm) per min. The accuracy of the etching
process is considerably high mainly due to the small amount of material removal. Tolerances
in the vicinity of + 50 Å (+ 5 x 10-mm) are possible.

4. (a) Draw the schematic layout of Laser Beam Machining (LBM) set-up and explain its
parts.

Working Principle

• Laser beam machining is a non-traditional machining method in which the operation is

performed by laser light.
• In this process, the Laser Beam is called monochromatic light, which is made to focus
on the workpiece to be machined by a lens to give extremely high energy density to
melt and vaporize any material.
• The Laser Crystal (Ruby) is in the form of a cylinder as shown in the figure or with flat
reflecting e are placed in a flash lamp coil of about 1000W.

63
 • The Flash is simulated with the high-intensity white light from Xenon. The Crystal gets
excited and emits the laser beam, which is focused on the workpiece by using the lens.
• The beam produced is extremely narrow and can be focused to a pinpoint area with a
power density of 1000 kW/cm2. Which produces high heat and the portion of the metal
is melted and vaporizes.

(b) Write the advantages, disadvantages and applications Laser Beam Machining (LBM).

Advantages

• Any material can be machined including non-metal.

• The production rate is high.
• There is no direct contact between the tool and the work.
• There is no tool wear.
• No mechanical force on the work.
• The heat-affected zone is very small.

Disadvantages

• The laser system is quite troublesome since the life of the flash lamp is short.
• Too deep holes are not possible to drill.
• While machining some plastic bum or char is noticed.
• Experienced and skilled operators are required.
• Rate of production is low.

64
Applications

• The laser beam machining process is used for making very small holes.
• Mass macro machining production.
• LBM is used in surgery.
• Selective heat treating of materials.
• Complicated welding of non-conductive and refractory materials.

5. Differentiate between Electron Beam Machining (EBM) and Laser Beam Machining
(LBM).

Electron Beam Machining (EBM) Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

A high intensity beam of focused electrons is used to A high intensity beam of laser (coherent
supply heat for material removal. photons) is used to supply heat for
material removal.

EBM process is always carried out in vacuum (very LBM does not require vacuum chamber. It
low pressure) chamber to avoid collision of electrons can be carried out in open atmosphere.
with air molecules. Such collision can undesirably Sometimes shielding gas can be applied in
reduce kinetic energy of electrons and spread them. machining zone to avoid high temperature
oxidation of machined surface.

It is suitable for small components as workpiece is Workpiece size does not pose any
required to keep within the vacuum chamber. restriction as it can be carried out in open
environment.

EBM process is time consuming mainly due to LBM process is time efficient.
creating a low pressure vacuum chamber.

X-Ray is generated during EBM process. This No X-Ray is generated in LBM process.
possesses serious health concern to the operator.

EBM is applicable to electrically conductive LBM is independent of electrical

workpiece materials only as workpiece must be conductivity of workpiece material. So it

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 grounded to stay neutral by transmitting striking can be used for both conductive and non-
electrons to the ground. conductive materials.

Optical properties of workpiece surface (such as LBM process capability relies on the
reflectivity, absorptivity, etc.) don’t influence EBM optical properties of workpiece surface.
process capability. High reflectivity can severely affect
process capability.

6. (a) Write the advantages, disadvantages and applications of Ion Beam Machining.

Advantages

• The process is almost universal.

• No chemical reagents or etching compounds are required.
• There is no undercutting as with another chemical etching process.
• Etching rates are easily controlled.
• There is no need for any chemical reagents or etching compounds.

Disadvantages

• It is relatively expensive.
• Etching rates are slow.
• Although virtually no heat is generated there is little possibility of some thermal or
radiation damage.

Applications

• It is applied mostly in micro-machining (etching) of electronic components like

computer parts, figuring optical surfaces.
• The precision fabrication of fine wire dies in refractory materials.
• Typical materials that can be etched include glass, alumina, quartz, crystals, silica,
agates, porcelain, cermet. and numerous metals and oxides.
• Using two opposing beams, a thin circular region on a rotating sample can produce
samples for transmission electron microscopy

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(b) Differentiate between Electron Beam Machining and Ion Beam Machining.

Electron Beam Machining (EBM) Ion Beam Machining (IBM)

EBM is a thermal energy based advanced machining IBM is one mechanical or kinetic energy
process. (momentum transfer) based advanced
machining process.
A concentrated beam of high velocity electrons is A beam of high velocity ions is used for
used to supply heat for removing material from material removal purpose.
workpiece.
The mechanism of material removal in EBM is The mechanism of material removal in
melting and vaporization. IBM is sputtering (or atom dislodging by
ion impact).
Material removal in EBM takes place in the form of In IBM, individual atom (or a cluster of
vapour of the concerned workpiece material. atoms) is directly dislodged from the
However, small fraction of material is removed in workpiece surface. However, no melting
molten form. or vaporization takes place.

Power density of the electron beam is relatively Power density of ion beam is significantly
higher (103 to 106 W/mm2). less (10-2 to 100 W/mm2).
EBM process is carried out in a vacuum chamber IBM process requires a soft vacuum
having very low pressure (1 × 10-8 atm) to avoid chamber with comparatively higher
collision of electrons with air molecules and to pressure, in the order of 10-3 to 10-5 atm.
protect hot tungsten filament.
X-ray generation intrinsically occurs in EBM No such X-ray generation takes place in
process. Thus, the process is somewhat risky to the IBM process. So, it is relatively safer to
operator. operate.
EBM process capability depends on the thermal IBM process is mostly independent of the
properties (such as conductivity, diffusivity, etc.) of thermal properties of the workpiece
the workpiece material. material.
It can cut features having high aspect ratio (up to It is not suitable for deep cutting or
5:1). Deep hole drilling and thick cutting (up to 6 fabricating features having high aspect
mm thickness) can be carried out using EBM. ratio. IBM is preferred for shallow
contouring, micro-cutting, polishing, etc.

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 The width or area of thermal damage observed in Impact damage on the workpiece is very
EBM process is relatively wider. narrow in IBM process. Often, no
palpable collateral damage is perceived.
Material removal rate (MRR) of EBM process is Material removal rate (MRR) of IBM
significantly higher (around 40 mm3/min). So it is a process is very low (in the order of 2 ×
productive and economic process. 10-4 mm3/min).

7. Draw the schematic layout of Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) set-up and explain its
parts.

Plasma arc machining is a metal removal process in which the metal is removed by focusing a
high-velocity jet of high temperature (11,000°C to 30,000°C) ionized gas on the workpiece.

Parts used for PAM

(a) Plasma Gun

Gases are used to create plasma-like, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, or a mixture of these gases.
The plasma gun consists of a tungsten electrode fitted in the chamber. The electrode is given
negative polarity and the nozzle of the gun is given positive polarity. The supply of gases is
maintained into the gun. The established arc is controlled by the supply rate of gases.

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(b) Power Supply and Terminals

Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A tungsten electrode
is inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of the gun is made anode. Heavy potential
difference is applied across the electrodes to develop a plasma state of gases.

(c)Cooling Mechanism

As we know that hot gases continuously come out of nozzle so there are chances of its
overheating. A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to avoid its overheating.

(d) Tooling

There is no direct visible tool used in PAM. Focused spray of ho0t, plasma state gases work as
a cutting tool.

(e) Workpiece

The workpiece of different materials can be processed by the PAM process. These materials
are aluminum, magnesium, stainless steel, and carbon and alloy steels. All those materials
which can be processed by LBM can also be processed by the PAM process.

Working Principle

• When a D.C power is given to the circuit, a strong arc is produced between the electrode
(cathode) and the nozzle (anode).
• A gas usually hydrogen (H2) or Nitrogen (N2) is passed into the chamber.
• This gas is heated to a sufficiently high temperature of the order of 11,000°C to
28,000°C by using an electric arc produced between the electrode and the nozzle.
• In this high temperature, the gases are ionized and a large amount of thermal energy is
liberated.
• This high velocity and high-temperature ionized gas (plasma) is directed on the
workpiece surface through the nozzle.
• This plasma jet melts the metal of the workpiece and the high-velocity gas stream
effectively blows the molten metal away.
• The heating of workpiece material is not due to any chemical reaction, but due. to the
continuous attack of plasma on the workpiece material. So, it can be safely used for
machining of any metal including those which can be subjected to the chemical
reaction.

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8. (a). Write the advantages, disadvantages Plasma Arc Machining (PAM).

Advantages

1. It can be used to cut any metal.

2. The cutting rate is high.
3. As compared to the ordinary flame cutting process, it can cut plain carbon steel four
times faster.
4. It is used for rough turning of very difficult materials.

Disadvantages

1. It produces a tapered surface.

2. The protection of noise is necessary.

3. The equipment cost is high.

4. Protection of eyes is necessary for the operator and persons working in nearby areas.

Applications

1. It is used for cutting alloy steels, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, nickel, titanium, aluminum,
and alloy of copper and nickel, etc.

2. It is used for profile cutting.

3. It is successfully used for turning and milling of hard to machine materials.

4. It can be used for stack cutting, shape cutting, piercing, and underwater cutting.

5. Uniform thin film spraying of refractory materials on different metals, plastics, ceramics are
also done by plasma arcs.

(b) Explain the parts of Laser Beam Machining (LBM) briefly.

Laser beam machining is a non-conventional machining method in which the operation is

performed by laser light. The laser light has maximum temperature strikes on the workpiece;
due to high temperature, the workpiece melts. The process used thermal energy to remove
material from a metallic surface. The parts are briefly described below:

• Power supply
• Flash Lamps

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 • Capacitor
• Reflecting Mirror
• Lense
• Workpiece

1. Power Supply

A high voltage is required for Laser. The power is supplied to the system for exiting the
electron. When the power is supplied the electron gets in an excited state that means ready to
work.

2. Flash Lamps

Flash lamps is used for providing white and coherent light for the very short duration.

3. Capacitor

In general we know the work of capacitor, It is used for storing and releasing the charge. Here
it is used during the flashing process.

4. Reflecting Mirror

Reflecting Mirror is used here to reflect the light directly to the workpiece. It is of two types
Internal and external.

5. Lense

Lense are provided here for vision purpose. It shows the image into bigger size so that it will
be easy to perform operation on the given work piece mark.

6. Workpiece

Work piece is like the object in which the operation is to be carried out. Example if body needed
any laser operation, then we are the work piece for this machine, same like manufacturing the
objects needs to be drill or hole the Laser machine carried out the operation.

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9. Differentiate between Plasma Arc Machining and Ion Beam Machining.

Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) Ion Beam Machining (IBM)

PAM is one thermal energy based advanced IBM is one mechanical or kinetic energy based
machining process. advanced machining process.

Mechanism of material removal in PAM is a Mechanism of material removal in IBM is

combination of (i) vaporization, and (ii) blowing sputtering (dislodging by bombarding ions).
away in molten state.

A constricted jet of intensely hot plasma is used A beam of high velocity ions is used to transfer
to supply thermal energy for material removal. momentum for dislodging atoms from the
working surface.

Material removal in PAM takes place in the form In IBM process, atom (or a cluster of atoms) is
of vapor of the concerned workpiece material. removed directly from the workpiece surface. No
However, considerable fraction of the material is such melting or vaporization occurs here.
blown away in molten form.

Power density of the plasma jet is relatively Power density of ion beam is significantly less
higher (102 to 103 W/mm2). (10-2 to 100 W/mm2).

Plasma forming gases (air, argon, nitrogen, A gas (argon) is introduced in a vacuum chamber
hydrogen) must be continuously pumped into the at a relatively lesser flow rate. This gas is then
high pressure gas chamber. This gas gets ionized by striking with energized free electrons
converted to thermal plasma when it flows (electron ionization). The ionized particles are
coaxially with the high temperature arc, and then manipulated to form a narrow but high
finally comes out of the chamber in the form of a velocity ion beam.
high velocity plasma jet.

PAM process does not require a vacuum IBM process necessitates a soft vacuum chamber
chamber for its operation. It can be operated in having pressure in the order of 10-3 to 10-5 atm.
open atmosphere.

PAM process is associated with excessive Thermal damage in IBM process is mostly
thermal damage of the workpiece. It produces a neglected (a very narrow zone of atomic level
wide heat affected zone. may get affected by impact).

PAM tends to deform the object owing to very IBM process is free from deformation as heating
high temperature non-uniform heating and is mostly negligible.
subsequent cooling of a wide area.

PAM process is usually very noisy. So personal IBM process is not noisy.
protective equipment (such as ear muffler) are
indispensably necessary.

PAM can be used to cut thick objects (even up to IBM is not suitable for deep cutting. It is
50 mm). preferred for micro-fabrication, smoothening and
surface contouring.

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PAM usually does not generate highly finished IBM is especially suitable for generating highly
surface. Concerned roughness is in the order of finished surfaces having nanometric roughness
0.5 – 2.0 μm. (10 nm or even lower).

10. Differentiate between Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) and Laser Beam Machining
(LBM).

Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

A high intensity beam of laser (coherent photon A high temperature plasma jet (highly excited
particles) is used to supply heat for melting and ions and electrons) is used as the heat source for
vaporizing the workpiece material. melting and vaporizing the workpiece material.
No separate gas is required to supply to generate Suitable plasma forming gas (air, argon,
laser beam as it is directly generated using the nitrogen, hydrogen) is required to supply
lasing medium (Nd-YAG, Nd-Glass, Ruby, continuously to a closed gas chamber under
CO2) with the assistance of flash tube. high pressure, which ultimately comes out as
high temperature plasma jet.
No electric arc is required to establish in LBM An electric arc is essentially required to supply
process. immense heat for converting the gas into
plasma.

Although melting and vaporization both occur Both melting and vaporization occur in PAM
simultaneously, most of the material is removed too; however, majority of the material is blown
in the form of vapour. Only small percentage is away by the high velocity plasma jet when the
removed in molten form. workpiece material remains in molten state. A
comparatively smaller fraction of the material is
removed in vaporized form.
The laser beam characteristics (such as beam PAM is less flexible in terms of parameter
diameter, energy density, incidence timing, controlling and their variation.
incidence pattern, etc.) can be controlled
effectively and easily.
Laser beam can be allowed to strike the Plasma jet is usually allowed to continuously
workpiece either continuously or intermittently strike the workpiece.
(as in the case of femtosecond laser).

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 In LBM, the kerf width can be maintained very In PAM, kerf is relatively wider (3 – 10 mm).
small (even below 0.1 mm).
A narrow localized heat-affected zone can be Specimens cut by PAM can have significantly
noticed in the specimens after cutting by LBM. wider heat-affected zone. The extent of thermal
damage made in PAM is more.

LBM process capability is affected by optical PAM process is not affected by the optical
properties of the workpiece surface properties of the workpiece surface.
(transparent, translucent and opaque). Highly
reflective surface can reduce rate of heat input.
LBM process is not noisy and can be carried out PAM process is very noisy. Thus proper hearing
without specific personal protections. protection (like ear muffler) is n

UNIT – V

1. Discuss briefly about the need of Micro fabrication Techniques, it’s advantages,
disadvantages, and applications.

Microfabrication is the process of fabricating miniature structures of micrometre scales and

smaller. Historically, the earliest microfabrication processes were used for integrated circuit
fabrication, also known as "semiconductor manufacturing" or "semiconductor device
fabrication".

Subtractive microfabrication techniques employ removal or etching of a portion of substrate to

fabricate microstructures/patterns. Dry etching and wet etching are two types of subtractive
microfabrication techniques. (i) Dry etching refers to the removal of material, typically a
masked pattern of semiconductor material by exposing the material to a bombardment of ions
(usually plasma of reactive gases such as fluorocarbons, oxygen, chlorine, boron trichloride;
sometimes with addition of nitrogen, argon, helium, and other gases) that dislodge portions of
the material from the exposed surface. (ii) Wet etching is chemical etching performed with a
liquid chemical (etchant) instead of plasma.

Advantages

• Resistant to heat. Metals have higher melting points. Even if the temperature rises a bit,
metal does not easily degrade.

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 • Metal can go through a wider range of processes including chipping, deep drawing,
casting, forging, welding, and soldering.
• Metal is more cost efficient when it comes to long-term, high-volume lines of
production.

Disadvantages

• Expensive starter fees. Metal fabrication tools are more expensive than plastic
fabrication.
• Metal usually needs processes after its fabrication. Deburring, finishing, and painting
follows and these are considered costlier and time consuming.
• It is ideal for creating advances shapes and geometries.

Applications

• Microfabrication is a process used to construct physical objects with dimensions in the

micrometer to millimeter range.
• It takes advantage of established semiconductor fabrication processes.
• It is used to make integrated circuits, and augments these with processes specially
developed for microfabrication.

2. Explain about the Micro Fabrication Technique - Lithography with neat Lithography
flow diagram.

Lithography is the process of transferring patterns of geometric shapes in a mask to a thin layer
of radiation-sensitive material (called resist) covering the surface of a semiconductor wafer.
Figure illustrates schematically the lithographic process employed in IC fabrication. The
radiation is transmitted through the clear parts of the mask and makes the exposed photoresist
insoluble in the developer solution, thereby enabling the direct transfer of the mask pattern onto
the wafer. After the patterns are defined, an etching process is employed to selectively remove
masked portions of the underlying layer. The performance of a lithographic exposure is
determined by three parameters: resolution, registration, and throughput. Resolution is defined
to be the minimum feature dimension that can be transferred with high fidelity to a resist film
on a semiconductor wafer. Registration is a measure of how accurately patterns on successive
masks can be aligned or overlaid with respect to previously defined patterns on the same wafer.
Throughput is the number of wafers that can be exposed per hour for a given mask level and is
thus a measure of the efficiency of the lithographic process.

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The vast majority of lithographic equipment for IC fabrication is optical equipment using
ultraviolet light (λ 0.2 μm to 0.4 μm) or deep ultraviolet light. There are basically two optical
exposure methods: shadow printing and projection printing. In shadow printing, the mask and
wafer may be in direct contact, as in contact printing, or in close proximity, as in proximity
printing. Contact printing yields very high resolution (~ 1 μm), but suffers from major
drawback caused by dust particles or silicon specks accidentally embedded into the mask,
thereby causing permanent damage to the mask and defects in the wafers. Proximity printing
is not as prone to particle damage. However, the small gap between the mask and wafer
(typically 10 μm to 50 μm) introduces optical diffraction at the feature edges on the photomasks
and the resolution is typically degraded to the 2 to 5 μm regime.

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3. Explain about the Micro Fabrication Technique of Thin-Film Deposition and show
classifications in the form of layout.

Thin films have a significant impact on the modern era of technology. Thin films are considered
as backbone for advanced applications in the various fields such as optical devices,
environmental applications, telecommunications devices, energy storage devices, etc. The
crucial issue for all applications of thin films depends on their morphology and the stability.
The morphology of the thin films strongly hinges on deposition techniques. Thin films can be
deposited by the physical and chemical routes. The vacuum thermal evaporation technique,
electron beam evaporation, pulsed-layer deposition, direct current/radio frequency magnetron
sputtering, and chemical route deposition systems will be discussed in detail.

Nowadays, most of the technologies are used for minimizing the materials into nano-size as
well as nano-thickness leading to the emergence of new and unique behaviors of such materials
in optical, electrical, optoelectronic, dielectric applications, and so on. Hence, a new branch of
science/materials science is called thin films or coatings. Thin film can be defined as a thin
layer of material, where the thickness is varied from several nanometers to few micrometers.
Like all materials, the structure of thin films is divided into amorphous and polycrystalline
structure depending on the preparation conditions as well as the material nature. Thin films
comprise two parts: the layer and the substrate where the films are deposited on it. Also, thin
films can be composed of different layers such as thin-film solar cells, electrochromic cells,
and so on.

Although the production of thin films via physical methods as previously described gives good
quality and functionalizes properties, it is highly expensive and perhaps requires a large amount
of material target. Since the need to produce good-quality thin films with low economical cost
is necessary, chemical deposition techniques are widely used globally. most common chemical
deposition has been obtained via sol-gel route, chemical bath deposition, electrodeposition,
chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and spray pyrolysis technique. This section is concerned
only on sol-gel and chemical bath deposition techniques because they can form good film
quality with low equipment requirement.

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 Figure. Schematic layout of Thin film deposition technique

4. (a) Discuss about the Micro Fabrication Technique-Doping.

Doping is an often-used method to change material properties in which one or more elements
or compounds are doped into the substrate to generate specific electrical and/or optical
properties. The introduction of foreign substances can be achieved by diffusion, ion
implantation (or alloy). The purpose is to modify the electrical conductivity of semiconducting
materials, for example, silicon. It is the main step in the fabricating process for semiconductor.
Dopant atoms are passed by ion implantation or sometimes from gaseous, liquid, or solid
diffusion.

The adding of dopants can be done by one of the three following ways:

a) When the silicon is in molten state the dopant atoms can be added to it.

b) When the ions of impurity atoms are bombarded onto the intrinsic semiconductor, the
dopants get added in the new under production semiconductor.

c) The impurity atoms can be added to the semiconductor if they are heated in a semiconductor
crystal container.

The following layout specifies techniques used in doping

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(b) Write a short note on doping technique of Sol-gel method.

The sol-gel process is a wet chemical technique also known as chemical solution deposition,
and involves several steps, in the following chronological order: hydrolysis and
polycondensation, gelation, aging, drying, densification, and crystallization.

Sol–gel method is a wet chemical technique for producing advanced materials in different
fields of research. This process is able to control the composition and microstructure at the
molecular level with the ability to form material in bulk, powder, fiber, and thin film. In
addition, various types of materials can be synthesized by sol-gel method including inorganic,
organic, and hybrid materials. Figure shows the most used different routes of sol-gel process.
There are potential advantages of the sol-gel process to produce a solid-state material from a
chemically homogeneous precursor which can be summarized as follows:

• It produces high purity products

• It allows the use of chemistry to control reactions
• It is a simple, low temperature and effective method.

Alkoxide and oxyalkoxide precursors have been used to synthesize various nanowires,
including LiCoO2, LiMnO2, LiNiO3, and TiO2, by the sol-gel method. Sol-gel methods are easy
procedures to modulate the final morphological features of titania nanoparticles. However, the

79
thermal treatment generally needed to transform the dried gel into the final desired materials
sometimes leads to uncontrolled growth of the nano carbide particles or (carbon) doping.
Therefore, despite the control over phase, size, and shape, the tailoring of the exposed surfaces
is not a simple issue to be achieved by this technique.

5. Explain about the Micro Fabrication Technique of Chemical vapor deposition with
neat diagram.

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) is a process in which the substrate is exposed to one or
more volatile precursors, which react and/or decompose on the substrate surface to produce the
desired thin film deposit.

Figure. Schematic representation of CVD

• Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a widely used materials-processing technology.

The majority of its applications involve applying solid thin-film coatings to surfaces,
but it is also used to produce high-purity bulk materials and powders, as well as
fabricating composite materials via infiltration techniques. It has been used to deposit
a very wide range of materials.
• Microfabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various forms,
including monocrystalline and polycrystalline. Today, CVD is a basic tool of
manufacturing used in everything from sunglasses to potato-chip bags and is
fundamental to the production of much of today’s electronics.
• This vapor deposition of polymers has opened the door to a variety of materials that
would be difficult, and in some cases impossible, to produce in any other way.

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 • For example, many useful polymers, such as water-shedding materials to protect
industrial components or biological implants, are made from precursors that are not
soluble, and thus could not be produced using conventional solution-based methods.

Advantages

• High purity can be obtained.

• CVD films are harder than similar materials produced using conventional ceramic
fabrication process.
• Material formation well below the melting point.
• Economical in production, since many parts can be coated at the same time.

Disadvantages

• Chemical and safety hazards caused by the use of toxic, corrosive.

• High deposition temperatures are often unsuitable for structures
• It leads to stress in films deposited on materials.

Applications

• Coatings have been used to preserve from wear and corrosion

• Semiconductors and related devices
• Fiber optics for telecommunications
• Used in the Microelectronics to make dielectrics, conductors and oxidation barriers.

6. Explain about the Micro Fabrication Technique of Physical vapor deposition with a
neat diagram.

Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is a thin-film coating process which produces coatings of
pure metals, metallic alloys and ceramics with a thickness usually in the range 1 to 10µm.
Physical vapour deposition, as its name implies, involves physically depositing atoms, ions or
molecules of a coating species on to a substrate.

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 Figure. Physical Vapor Deposition

There are three main types of PVD, all of which are undertaken in a chamber containing a
controlled atmosphere at reduced pressure (0.1 to 1 N/m 2)

• Thermal evaporation
• Sputtering
• Ion plating

PVD (physical vapor deposition) coating, also known as thin-film coating, is a process in which
a solid material is vaporized in a vacuum and deposited onto the surface of a part. These
coatings are not simply metal layers though. Instead, compound materials are deposited atom
by atom, forming a thin, bonded, metal or metal-ceramic surface layer that greatly improves
the appearance, durability, and/or function of a part or product. Here at VaporTech, your
physical vapor deposition coating is developed by our scientists for your exacting needs and
can be easily customized to change the color, durability, or other characteristics of the coating.

PVD coatings can reduce friction and provide a barrier against damage. The applications for
these coatings are ever expanding. Aerospace, automotive, defence, manufacturing and more
where long lasting durability is crucial. This type of physical vapor deposition coatings can
also be highly resistant to tarnishing and corrosion, enabling them to be used for a wide range
of decorative finishes with colors that do not fade. A PVD gold or platinum coating produces
brilliant finishes that make watches highly resistant to scratches and scrapes that cause less
resilient processes to wear off. Titanium nitride and similar coatings offer beautiful finishes

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that are also very resistant to corrosion and wear. This makes them widely used on household
items such as door handles, plumbing fixtures and marine fixtures as well as machining tools,
knives, drill bits, etc. It produces coatings with superior hardness, durability and resistance to
wear.

7. Discuss briefly about the need of Nano fabrication Techniques and specify advantages
and disadvantages

Microfabrication is the process of fabricating miniature structures of micrometre scales and

smaller. Historically, the earliest microfabrication processes were used for integrated circuit
fabrication, also known as "semiconductor device fabrication". The major concepts and
principles of microfabrication are microlithography, doping, thin films, etching, bonding, and
polishing.

• Microfabrication is a need to construct physical objects with dimensions in the

micrometer to millimeter range. It takes advantage of established semicon- ductor
fabrication processes, used to make integrated circuits, and augments these with
processes specially developed for microfabrication.
• Microfabrication is actually a collection of technologies which are utilized in making
microdevices. Some of them have very old origins, not connected to manufacturing,
like lithography or etching.
• To fabricate a microdevice, many processes must be performed, one after the other,
many times repeatedly.
• The most important microfabrication techniques are photolithography, soft lithography,
film deposition, etching, and bonding. Photolithography is used to transfer a user-
generated shape onto a material through the selective exposure of a light sensitive
polymer.

Advantages

• The development of nano fabrication process electronic products includes nano

transistors, nano diodes, OLED, plasma displays, quantum computers, and many more.
• Nanotechnology can also benefit the energy sector batteries, fuel cells, and solar cells
can be built smaller but can be made to be more effective with this technology.

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 • It also benefits in the manufacturing sector that will need materials like nanotubes,
aerogels, nano particles, and other similar items to produce their products with.
• These materials are often stronger, more durable, and lighter than those that are not
produced with the help of nanotechnology.
• The research of nanotechnology in medicine is now focusing on areas like tissue
regeneration, bone repair, immunity and even cures for such ailments like cancer,
diabetes, and other life-threatening diseases.

Disadvantages

• Included in the list of disadvantages of this science and its development is the possible
loss of jobs in the traditional farming and manufacturing industry.
• Atomic weapons can now be more accessible and made to be more powerful and more
destructive. These can also become more accessible with nanotechnology.
• Presently, nanotechnology is very expensive and developing it can cost you a lot of
money.
• It is also pretty difficult to manufacture, which is probably why products made with
nanotechnology are more expensive.

8. Explain about Nanofabrication Techniques-E-Beam Nanofabrication.

Electron beam lithography (EBL) is an important technique, which is used to design devices,
systems and functional materials at the nano scale. In this miniaturization technique, large-
scale products are converted into small-scale structures. Principally, the fabrication procedure
can be performed in a traditional scanning electron microscope (SEM) integrated with an extra
control unit. During the EBL process, both SEM and light microscope (LM) are utilized for
control and investigation of the developed nanostructures at the same sample areas. At this
stage, the "Shuttle & Find" interface for correlative microscopy provides a suitable solution for
exact relocation of regions of interest for this application.

EBL Process

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 Figure. Electron beam lithography process.

The above figure shows the series of nanostructuring during the EBL procedure. The
exposure of a sensitive resist with an electron beam is the core of the EBL process. The
resist is often a polymer dissolved in a liquid solvent, which is coated onto a surface and
baked to form an even thin layer. During electron beam exposure, the solubility of the resist
is altered, causing a dissolution variation with areas that are non-exposed. Following this,
the pattern is developed using a liquid developer. Lastly, the combination with processes,
like dry or wet etching, lift-off of evaporated material, and/or electro- deposition completes
the fabrication of structure.

Figure. Workflow during EBL nanofabrication.

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 The flowchart given above displays the complete workflow of a traditional EBL process.
LM and SEM are utilized a number of times for exposure or control. Owing to the nature
of resists, the stage navigation in the SEM should be carried out with the beam blanked so
as to prevent exposure. For such exposures, "Shuttle & Find" offers a suitable solution and
prevents extensive stage alignments.

9. Explain about Nanofabrication Techniques- Scanning Probe Technique with neat

diagram.

Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) describes a range of techniques that utilize a very fine
physical probe to scan across surfaces, thereby monitoring the interaction strength between the
tip and surface producing images, profiles or maps of the surface.

Figure. Scanning Probe Microscope (SPM)

The basic components of a SPM include probe and scanner, these are discussed in detail in the
following sections.

1. Probe

As the distance between two objects is decreased to very small values, a variety of interactions
occur between them at atomic scale. These interactions form the basis of SPM. The probe is
very sensitive towards these interactions and is configured to detect them. In SPM, this probe
is brought very close to the sample being imaged. The magnitude of the interaction between
probe and sample depends on the distance between them. This gives an SPM the ability to
precisely map the surface topography of a specimen.

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2. Scanner

A piezoelectric ceramic is used to provide the precise positioning control necessary to all the
SPM scanners. The application of voltage causes a corresponding change in the geometry of
the piezoelectric ceramic. This voltage, in turn, is proportional to the resulting mechanical
movement. In SPM, this piezoelectric scanner undergoes controlled and predictable bending,
expansion as well as contractions. Thus, the probe-sample gap and the position of the probe,
both can be controlled via this scanner.

Working Principle

• SPM scans an atomically sharp probe over a surface, usually at a distance of a few
nanometers or angstroms.
• The contact between the sharp probe and surface produces a 3D topographic image of
the surface at the atomic scale.
• In contrast to other instruments that open a window to the realm of molecule-sized
spaces, SPMs are comparatively simple, inexpensive, and user-friendly.
• A particularly appealing feature about the proximal probes is their multipurpose
capacity that provides not only a view of separate atoms but also ways to pick them up,
shift them around, and place them at will.

10. (a) Explain the types of microfabrication techniques used in Industrial sectors.

Basic microfabrication techniques are deposition, patterning, doping, and etching. A brief
description for each step of the microfabrication techniques has been described further below:

Deposition: Usually a thin layer, for example, insulating silicon dioxide film, can be used as
the “deposit” on a substrate.

Pattering: A sensitive photoresist layer can be deposited on top of the film and then patterned
via photolithography.

Doping: The purpose is to modify the electrical conductivity of semiconducting materials, for
example, silicon. It is the main step in the fabricating process for semiconductor. Dopant atoms
are passed by ion implantation or sometimes from gaseous, liquid, or solid diffusion.

Etching: Two different types of etching can be used, wet etching and dry etching, depending
on the exact requirements in the manufacturing process.

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(b) Discuss briefly about the its advantages, disadvantages, and applications.

Advantages

• Scanning Probe Microscopy provides researchers with a larger variety of specimen

observation environments using the same microscope and specimen reducing the time
required to prepare and study specimens.
• Specialized probes, improvements, and modifications to scanning probe instruments
continues to provide faster, more efficient and revealing specimen images with minor
effort and modification.
• Computers are used to compensate for these exaggerations and produce real time color
images that provide researchers with real time information including interactions within
cellular structures, harmonic responses and magnetic energy.

Disadvantages

• Unfortunately, one of the downsides of scanning probe microscopes is that images are
produced in black and white or grayscale.
• These are expensive, large and must be housed in an area free of any possible electric,
magnetic or vibration interference
• The maintenance involves keeping a steady voltage, and currents to electromagnetic
coils

Applications

i. To see scattered images on material surface

ii. To estimate size, shape, cracks and pores on the surface.
iii. To detect the behaviour of materials.

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