Delft University of Technology

Modeling the Propeller Slipstream Effect on Lift and Pitching Moment

Bouquet, Thijs; Vos, Roelof

DOI
10.2514/6.2017-0236
Publication date
2017
Document Version
Accepted author manuscript
Published in
55th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting

Citation (APA)
Bouquet, T., & Vos, R. (2017). Modeling the Propeller Slipstream Effect on Lift and Pitching Moment. In 55th
AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting: Grapevine, Texas Article AIAA 2017-0236 American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics Inc. (AIAA). [Link]

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This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published in: 55th AIAA Aerospace Sciences
Meeting, 9/01/17 - 13/01/17 Grapevine, USA ISBN: 978-1-62410-447-3
Available online: [Link]

Modeling the Propeller Slipstream Effect on Lift and

Pitching Moment

Thijs Bouquet∗ and Roelof Vos†

Delft University of Technology, Delft, 2600AA, the Netherlands

A semi-analytical prediction method is presented to predict the effect of the propeller

slipstream on the lift and pitching moment of a propeller-powered aircraft. The method
assesses three effects caused by the propeller slipstream: an increase in lift over the wing due
to the slipstream, a change in the tail-off pitching moment, and a change in the horizontal
tail contribution to the pitching moment due to increased downwash and (possibly) dynamic
pressure. This prediction method is validated using wind tunnel data for the Fokker 50 and
a special version of the Saab 340 with T-tail. The prediction method shows good correlation
with the experimental results for various combinations of flap deflection, angle-of-attack,
and thrust coefficient. Further analysis of the results demonstrates that the propeller
slipstream effect reduces the tail effectiveness due to an increase in downwash gradient at
the horizontal tail. Furthermore, it is shown that the effectiveness of the tail is influenced
by the vertical position of the tail with respect to the slipstream due to slipstream inflow
and a (possible) change dynamic pressure ratio.

I. Introduction
The implementation of propeller engines has significant implications with respect to the stability and control
of an aircraft. Due to the increased flow velocity over the wing and a propeller normal force, the pitching
moments change due to the presence of a propeller slipstream. Furthermore, the increasing downwash and
potential increase in dynamic pressure over the tail also changes the effectiveness of the horizontal tail. These
changes must be taken into account to accurately determine the minimal horizontal tail surface area. The
complex nature of the propeller slipstream effect means that these implications are normally not incorporated
in the conceptual design phase. As Phillips1 says, “The effects of the propeller slipstream on other airplane
surfaces such as the wing, tail and fuselage are very complex and do not lend themselves to accurate analytical
treatment. These effects can be accurately evaluated only from powered wind tunnel tests. Such tests are
commonly performed in the final phase of the airplane design process. Simply because of complexity, the
slipstream effects are usually neglected in the preliminary design phase. It should be remembered, however,
that the slipstream effects can be significant.” Therefore, the question that this paper is trying to answer is,
“How can the propeller slipstream effect on the longitudinal stability and control of a conventional aircraft
be predicted quickly during the preliminary design phase?”
Figure 1 illustrates the helical vortex system resulting from a propeller blade advancing through the flow.
The helical vortex system tends to deform and roll-up, producing a slipstream tube with strong variations in
flow quantities. Although the slipstream can be described using many variables, only the following variables
are discussed in further detail as these are relevant for the modeling of the slipstream in relation to the topic
of this paper: (1) Axial and swirl velocity profiles, (2) Contraction, and (3) installed propeller effects on the
wing.
When examining velocity profiles of an uninstalled propeller, the axial velocity (va ) is determined as the
velocity along the propeller thrust axis. The axial velocity varies along the propeller blade, with a maximum
at roughly 3/4 of the radius. The maximum occurs at this position as the blade loading is also maximum
∗ MSc Student, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The

Netherlands
† Assistant Professor, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5058, 2600 GB Delft, The

Netherlands, Senior Member AIAA

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 Figure 1. Helical vortex system and slipstream tube generated by propeller2

at this location. The axial velocity in the propeller slipstream increases downstream of the propeller. This
means that the longitudinal distance between the propeller and a downstream location in the streamtube
has an important effect on the local axial velocity [Link] swirl velocity (vt ) is the propeller induced
tangential velocity. The swirl velocity profile in the longitudinal direction is shown in Figure 2(b). It is
assumed that the swirl velocity remains unchanged with longitudinal position.

(a) Axial velocity (b) Swirl velocity

Figure 2. Velocity variations induced by the propeller.2

For the uninstalled propeller, the streamtube is assumed to be circular with the same radius as the
propeller at the propeller location. Further downstream the streamtube contracts to maintain constant
mass flow as the axial velocity increases. For the uninstalled propeller, the contraction ratio RS /R can be
approximated using the following equation as determined by Theodorsen:3
v
RS (x) u 1+a
=t (1)
u  
R 1+a 1+ √ x R2 +x2

 
Where a is defined as the dimensionless axial velocity factor Vva0 .
The installed propeller effects on the wing schematically shown in Figure 3. As the flow is accelerated
in axial direction by the propeller, the dynamic pressure over the wing is increased, resulting in an increase
in local lift. Due to the rotation of the propeller the upward rotating blade causes an increase in local
angle-of-attack on the wing resulting from the swirl velocity. In the same manner, the downward rotating
blade position produces a lower local angle-of-attack on the wing. This change in local angle-of-attack causes
a respective increase or decrease in local lift coefficient as shown in the figure. The importance of rotation
direction is also shown by illustrating the placement of the local lift coefficient peak at the upward rotating
side in the inboard or outboard rotating case. Figure 3 shows the combination of these effects on the lift
distribution over the wing and demonstrate the effect of rotational direction.

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 Figure 3. Lift distribution over the wing as affected by the slipstream2

The remaining part of this paper is structured as follows. The relevant theory regarding propeller engines,
the theory of slipstream effect on lift and pitching moment in Section II. The the prediction method is
compared to experimental results in Section III. The results of the prediction method are further interpreted
in Section IV Finally, conclusions and recommendations following from this investigation are given in Section
V.

II. Analysis Methodology

The method to predict the effect of the propeller slipstream on the longitudinal stability and control is
based the method of Obert.4 This method has been expanded to determine required variables which are
not available from windtunnel data. The additions to the method will be detailed in their corresponding
subsections. The following assumptions are made:
• The slipstream rotation (swirl) and directional translation can be neglected
• The slipstream cross-section remains circular with the contracted slipstream diameter at the horizontal
tail
• For the determination of the tail-off lift coefficient, the axial velocity is considered to be uniform across
the slipstream section

A. Tail-off lift coefficient

The total tail-off lift coefficient (CLT-O ) is the sum of the lift coefficient due to the wing plus slipstream
(CLW+S ), the lift due to the propeller normal force (CLP ), and a thrust component perpendicular to the free
stream direction (CLT ):
CLT-O = CLW+S + CLP + CLT (2)
The lift due to thrust is computed as follows:
T
CLT = CT sin α with CT = 1 2
(3)
2 ρV S

The lift due to the propeller normal force is computed by following the method of de Young,5 which is
documented in ESDU data sheet 890476 with reference to ESDU data sheet 850157 for the computation of
propeller installation parameters.
To determine the change in lift over the wing due to the propeller slipstream, a method developed by
Stepniewsky8 which incorporates lifting line theory, was used. According to lifting line theory, the lift on a
wing can be determined using:4
π
LW = ṁ0 V0 sin ε = ρ b2W V02 sin ε (4)
4

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This equation states that the flow can be considered as a stream tube with circular cross section and diameter
equal to the span of the wing which is deflected over the downwash angle (ε). Stepniewsky expanded on this
by stating that the lift due to propeller slipstream is equal to the momentum resulting from the downward
deflection of each streamtube of the propeller slipstream deflected over the slipstream downwash angle (εS ):8
π 2
LS = ne ṁS (V0 + ∆V ) sin εS = ne ρ D∗ 2 (V0 + ∆V ) sin εS (5)
4
In this equation, D∗ is the contracted slipstream diameter. The contracted slipstream diameter is dependent
on the propeller diameter, freestream flow velocity and velocity increase over the propeller blade as given by
Roskam:9 s
V0 + ∆V /2
D∗ = D (6)
V0 + ∆V
Furthermore, the velocity increase in the fully contracted slipstream (∆V ) can be calculated using:
s
∆V Ve − V0 SW
= = 1 + CT π 2 − 1 (7)
V0 V0 ne 4 D

To calculate the lift over a wing with slipstream present, the total cross-sectional area of the contracted
slipstream tubes needs to be subtracted from the cross-sectional area describing the outer flow. Doing so
gives the lift over a wing (W) with a propeller slipstream (S) present:
hπ π i π
2
LW+S = ρV02 b2W − ne D∗2 sin ε + ρ[V0 + ∆V ] ne D∗2 sin εS (8)
4 4 4
The corresponding lift coefficient is:
2
LW+S 2 π 2 π  πD∗2 (V0 + ∆V )
CLW+S = 1 2
= bW − ne D∗2 sin ε + ne 2 sin εS (9)
2 ρV 0 SW SW 4 4 2SW V0

The downwash due to slipstream (εs ) is estimated by using the assumption that the lift due to slipstream
is equal to the lift on a wing in free flow with a span equal to the diameter of the fully contracted slipstream
and an airfoil section equal to the wing section at the propeller axes with flaps deflected.4 Combining this
assumption with lifting line theory gives:
2CLαs,eff
sin εS = sin αS (10)
πAs,eff

The effective aspect ratio of the wing part immersed in the slipstream (ASeff ) is dependent on the thrust
coefficient. It is computed using:
 (AW −AS )
V0
ASeff = AS + (AW − AS ) (11)
V0 + ∆V
 
The effective lift-curve slope of the slipstream section of the wing CLαs,eff is found using Figure 4 from
NACA report 1098.10 The angle-of-attack of this section (αs ) is the angle between the effective propeller
slipstream center line and the zero-lift angle-of-attack with flaps deflected:

αS = α∗ + icS − α0 − ∆α0,f (12)

where icS is the angle of incidence of the local wing chord with respect to the fuselage reference line, α0 is
the zero-lift angle-of-attack of the relevant airfoil section, and ∆α0,f is the change in zero-lift angle-of-attack
due to flap deflection. Finally, the change in flow direction due to the acceleration of the flow at the propeller
disk, α∗ , is calculated using:
V0 sin αR
α∗ = arctan (13)
V0 cos αR + ∆V /2
where αR is the aircraft angle-of-attack.

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 Sweep angle [deg]
0.08 0

0.07 30

0.06 40

rad
1
Lift-curve slope, CLα
50
0.05

60
0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Aspect Ratio, ASeff [-]

Figure 4. Variation of lift-curve slope with aspect ratio, and sweepback for subsonic incompressible flow10

The downwash directly behind the wing without propeller slipstream, ε, is found from lifting line theory:
2CLW
sin ε = (14)
πAW
In this equation, the power-off lift coefficient of the wing, CLW is found by modeling the wing with the
vortex-lattice method AVL.11 The lift coefficient due to propeller slipstream can be calculated using:

CLS = CLW+S − CLW (15)

B. Tail-Off Pitching Moment

The pitching moment of aircraft-less-tail with thrust-producing propellers is a summation of the pitching
moment at zero thrust (CmCT =0 ), the pitching moment due to the propeller normal force (CmP ), the pitching
moment due to the change in thrust vector (CmT ), and the pitching moment due to the slipstream effect
(CmS ). In the subsequent paragraphs, all pitching moments are taken about the reference point of the aircraft,
which is the quarter-chord of the mean aerodynamic chord, i.e. c̄/4. The pitching moment coefficient of the
aircraft-less-tail is:
CmT-O = CmCT =0 + CmP + CmT + CmS (16)
The slipstream effect on pitching moment is caused by the change in flow velocity over the wing in the
propeller slipstream (CmS ). The following contributions are distinguished: a contribution due to the slip-
stream effect on the clean wing (CmS,0 ), a contribution due to the slipstream and flap deflection at constant
angle-of-attack (CmS,δf ), and a contribution due to angle-of-attack at constant flap deflection, CmS,α .

CmS = CmS,0 + ∆CmS,δf + ∆CmS,α (17)

Starting with the clean wing, the contribution to the pitching moment of the propeller slipstream can be
computed as: " #
2
D ∗ cs V0 + ∆V
CmS,0 = ne cm0,s −1 (18)
SW V0
where cm0,s is the local pitching moment coefficient of the airfoil located on the propeller axis. For clean
wings, the increase in lift due to propeller slipstream is assumed to apply at the quarter-chord point of the
local chord in line with the propeller axis (cs ). When flaps are deflected, the change in lift coefficient is
applied to the extended chord (c0s ). Based on numerous windtunnel test results, Obert expanded Glauert’s
theoretical relation for hinged flaps to the following equation:4

c0 √
 
cf h  i
∆CmS, δf = s −0.25 + 0.32 0 1 + 0.2 1 − 2 sin δf ∆CLS,δf (19)
cs cs

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where
∆CLS,δf = CLS − CLS |δf =0 (20)
The change in pitching moment about the quarter-chord point of the extended chord due to lift caused
by the propeller slipstream at angle-of-attack (∆CmS,α ) is determined using:

∆CmS,α = F × ∆CLS,α (21)

with nh i 0   o
 0.5δf + 0.25 cs − 1 + 0.05 δf + ∆Xfus
1−
δf
for 0 ≤ δf ≤ 30
30 cs 30 c̄ 30
F = (22)
−0.75 c0s − 1 − 0.05 for δf > 30
 
cs

and
∆CLS,α = CLS − CLS |α=0 (23)
where ∆Xfus is representing a contribution of the fuselage to the shift in lift-force application point.12

C. Tail-On Pitching Moment

The tail-on pitching moment (Cm ) is calculated by adding the horizontal tail pitching moment (∆Cmh ) to
the previously calculated tail-off pitching moment, or simply:

Cm = CmT-O + Cmh (24)

where the horizontal tail pitching moment is computed as follows using:

qh Sh lh
Cmh = − (αR − ε + ih ) CLα,h (25)
q SW c̄

where ih is the incidence angle of the horizontal tail, CLα,h its lift curve slope, qqh the ratio of dynamic
pressure at the horizontal tail, and SShWlhc̄ the tail volume coefficient (with lh being the horizontal distance
between the quarter chord points of the wing’s and horizontal tail plane’s mean aerodynamic chords). While
the lift-curve slope is found using a vortex-lattice method (AVL), the local downwash angle (ε) and local
dynamic pressure (qh ) need further elaboration. For both computations, the location of the slipstream center
line with respect to the horizontal tail plane needs to be determined.

1. Vertical Distance of Slipstream Center Line to Horizontal Tail

The distance h between the slipstream center line and the horizontal tail consists of four contributions:
the geometrical distance between the tail surface and the propeller axis at zero angle-of-attack, the vertical
displacement of the horizontal tail due to angle-of-attack, the vertical displacement of the slipstream center
line passing through the clean wing’s trailing edge, and the vertical displacement of the slipstream center
line due to the propeller axis not coinciding with the streamline leading to the forward stagnation point.
This final contribution itself comprises of three components: the displacement of the propeller disk due to
angle-of-attack with respect to the quarter chord reference point, the displacement of the center line due
to the downward displacement of the trailing edge when flaps are deflected, and the displacement of the
centerline caused by upwash in front of the wing due to flap deflection. The following equation is sums all
these distances to find the slipstream center line and the horizontal tail:4

h = zh − zprop − lh sin α + lh∗ sin (Kε ε) − xc̄/4 − xprop sin α + cf sin δf + 0.25 xc̄/4 − xprop sin ∆α0,f (26)

 

where z indicates vertical position of a component in the aircraft reference frame, ∆α0,f is the change in
airfoil section zero-lift angle-of-attack due to flap deflection (obtained using AVL), and Kε is an empirical
downwash factor (Kε = zW /zε ). The latter is related to the horizontal distance between the wing trailing
edge and horizontal-tail leading edge (lh∗ ) according to the curve shown in Figure 5. This factor accounts
for the fact that the slipstream center line continues to curve downwards downstream of the wing. In this
equation, the downwash (ε) is calculated assuming no inflow effects, which will be described in the following
subsection.

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 3

2.5

Downwash factor, Kε [-]

2

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Distance between trailing edge and tail w.r.t. MAC, lh∗ /c [-]

Figure 5. Downwash factor Kε versus distance behind the wing trailing edge.4

2. Downwash
The downwash behind a wing with rotating propellers is assumed to consist of three major components:
the power-off downwash resulting primarily from lift over the wing (computed with AVL), the change in
downwash due to the increase in lift over the wing by propeller slipstream, and an inflow from the external
flow into the slipstream. The last component only occurs when the distance between the horizontal tail and
the slipstream center line is less that 1.25 times the contracted slipstream diameter (D∗ ). The downwash
increases or decreases depending on whether the tail is above or below the slipstream center line, respectively.
The downwash due to inflow is dependent
  on the increase in flow velocity in the contracted slipstream with
∆V
respect to the freestream velocity V0 . The downwash at the horizontal tail is computed as follows:4
   
dε ∆V
ε = (ε0 )P-O + (CLP-O + CLS ) + (∆ε) ∆V =1 (27)
dCL P-O
V0 V0

Here, the downwash at the zero-lift angle-of-attack [(ε0 )P-O ] is a result of the fact that although the total
lift is zero, the flow behind the wing is not necessarily the same as the undisturbed flow (i.e. due to a
non-elliptical lift distribution or upwash from the fuselage or nacelles). In the current implementation, these
effects are ignored, i.e. the subscripts “P-O” can be replaced with “W”. The curve for (∆ε) ∆V =1 was
V0
determined empirically as a function of the previously mentioned distance between slipstream center line
and horizontal tail (h). This curve is shown in Figure 6.

4
Change in downwash due to inflow, ∆ε, [deg]

-1

-2

-3
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
htot
Slipstream distance w.r.t. contracted slipstream, D∗ /2 [-]

Figure 6. Change in downwash at the tailplane due to inflow into the slipstream - generalized curve4

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3. Average Dynamic Pressure
The average dynamic pressure at the horizontal tail (qh ) is determined by calculating the tail area covered
by the propeller streamtubes. This area can be determined using the situation sketched in Figure 7. The
tail area can be determined as:
SS = 2bS chs (28)
where the span of the tail covered by the slipstream is found using:
s  2
∗ 2h
bS = D 1 − (29)
D∗

The average dynamic pressure at the tail can then be found using the assumption that no mixing occurs
between the slipstream and outer flow. Under this assumption, the dynamic pressure ratio is:4
" 2  #
qh ∆V Sh,S Sh,S
= 1+ + 1− (30)
q V0 Sh Sh

fuselage center line horizontal tail plane

bS

h
slipstream
perimeter

D*

bh/2

Figure 7. Tail span covered by the propeller slipstream

III. Method Verification

Little validation data exists in the open literature to validate the presented method. The only useable data
sets that could be found are for the Fokker 504 and Saab 340 with a T-tail configuration13 (referred to as
Saab 340T) . The dimensions for the Saab 340T were used as direct inputs for the method. The Fokker
50I design was synthesized using the Initiator and therefore demonstrates the applicability of the method as
part of an aircraft synthesis program. Table 1 shows the difference in aircraft dimensions of the synthesized
aircraft versus the actual dimensions of the Fokker 50.

Table 1. Dimensions of synthesized propeller aircraft compared to actual Fokker 50 dimensions

Dimension Actual Fokker 50 Initiator Fokker 50I Difference

Fuselage Length [m] 25.25 24.1 -4.5%
Wing Area [m2 ] 70 68.3 -2.4%
Wing Span [m] 29 28.6 -1.3%
Propeller Diameter [m] 3.66 3.64 -0.4%

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A. Tail-off Lift Coefficient
The tail-off lift curves show the tail-off lift coefficient (CLT-O ) versus angle-of-attack at various propeller
thrust coefficients and flap deflections. The tail-off lift curves for the Saab 340T at various flap deflections
and propeller thrust coefficients are shown in Figure 8(a). This figure shows a good correlation between the
calculated values and the windtunnel test results although the individual contributions of flap deflection and
thrust cannot be discerned. Instead, Figure 8(b) gives a clearer indication of the propeller slipstream effect
on the lift curves. This figure shows the difference between the tail-off lift-curve slopes in the power-off and
power-on (CT = 0.6) condition at a constant flap deflection of 20 degrees. For example, at α = 0 the lift
coefficient is increased by roughly 35%, proving the significant of the propeller slipstream. Furthermore, the
figure again shows a good correlation between the measured and calculated results.
3.0 2.4
Measured CT = 0.30
Calculated: CT = 0.30, δf = 0 deg

Tail-Off Lift Coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Calculated CT = 0.30
2.5
Tail-Off Lift Coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Wind tunnel: CT = 0.30, δf = 0 deg

2.0 Measured CT = 0.60
2.0 Calculated CT = 0.60

1.6
1.5

1.0 1.2

0.5 Calculated: CT = 0.60, δf = 20 deg

Wind tunnel: CT = 0.60, δf = 20 deg 0.8
0 Calculated: CT = 0.60, δf = 40 deg
Wind tunnel: CT = 0.60, δf = 40 deg
-0.5 0.4
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg)
(a) Flaps 0, 20, 40 degrees (b) Flaps 20 degrees

Figure 8. Tail-off lift curves - Saab 340T

Figure 8(a) shows that the lift is predicted with a maximum discrepancy of 11% in lift coefficient occurring
at 40degrees flap deflection. The main error in all three flight settings is that the lift curve slope is slightly
steeper compared to the test data. This error could be causes by an over prediction of the lift curve slope
by AVL, the propeller normal force slope, or the slipstream effect. From Figure 8(b) the conclusion can be
drawn that the lift curve slope as predicted by AVL is correct, albeit with a constant offset.
Figure 9 contains the lift curves at a constant flap deflection angle for increasing thrust coefficients of
the Fokker 50I. These figures again clearly show the increase in tail-off lift, due to propeller thrust as the lift
curve slopes are steeper for higher thrust coefficients. Furthermore, as expected, the tail-off lift is higher at
higher flap deflections.
The curves for the Fokker 50I show similar effects as the Saab 340T. In general, the calculated values
coincide reasonably well with the measured values. However, a comparatively larger error occurs with respect
to the Saab 340T. A larger error is expected because the Fokker 50I calculations are based on the aircraft
dimensions which follow from the Initiator design (see Table 1). The larger error can be observed when
comparing the power-off lift curves in Figure 9 to the power-off lift curve of the Saab 340T. When comparing
the propeller slipstream contributions, the calculations seem to slightly over predict the effect. This can be
seen as the calculated curves increase relatively compared to the measured curves. Although this means
that the calculated values correlate better with the measured values in some cases (Figure 9(d)), this does
not mean that this is correct. The over prediction is in line with the results for the Saab 340T, and could
thus be credited to a number of effects including an erroneous increase in propeller normal force or incorrect
effective lift slope for the slipstream section.

B. Pitching Moment Coefficient

The pitching moment curves, indicating the tail-off and tail-on pitching moments about a certain reference
point versus the corresponding lift coefficient, are given per aircraft. Again the Saab 340T results are
presented first, followed by the Fokker 50I. These figures were found by determining the lift coefficient and

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 1.6 2.5
Calculated: CT = 0 Calculated: CT = 0
1.4

Tail-Off Lift Coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Tail-Off Lift Coefficient, CL, T-O (~) Measured: CT = 0
2.0
Measured: CT = 0
1.2 Calculated: CT = 0.165 Calculated: CT = 0.165
Measured: CT = 0.165 Measured: CT = 0.165
1.0 1.5
0.8

0.6 1.0
Calculated: CT = 0.326 Calculated: CT = 0.326
0.4
Measured: CT = 0.326 0.5 Measured: CT = 0.326
0.2 Calculated: CT = 0.815 Calculated: CT = 0.815
Measured: CT = 0.815 Measured: CT = 0.815
0 0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg)
(a) Flaps retracted (b) Flaps 16.5 degrees

2.6 3.5
Calculated: CT = 0 Calculated: CT = 0
2.4

Tail-Off Lift Coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Measured: CT = 0 Measured: CT = 0
Tail-Off Lift Coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Calculated: CT = 0.165 3.0 Calculated: CT = 0.165

2.2
Measured: CT = 0.165 Measured: CT = 0.165
2.0 Calculated: CT = 0.326
2.5
1.8
1.6
2.0
1.4
Calculated: CT = 0.326
1.2 Measured: CT = 0.326 1.5 Measured: CT = 0.326
Calculated: CT = 0.815 Calculated: CT = 0.815
1.0
Measured: CT = 0.815 Measured: CT = 0.815
0.8 1.0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg)
(c) Flaps 26.5 degrees (d) Flaps 40 degrees

Figure 9. Tail-off lift curves - Fokker 50I

pitching moments at various angles of attack. As a result, constant angles of attack lines are also shown
between the power-off and power-on lines to indicate the change in lift and pitching moment due to rotating
propellers. It should be noted that the power-off tail-off moments were taken from the wind tunnel data.
Three pitching moment graphs are shown for the Saab 340T in Figure 10. Both the tail-off and tail-on
pitching moments are shown. The tail-off pitching moment curves show two major effects due to propeller
thrust. The first is the increasing lift coefficient due to the propeller slipstream. The second is an overall
decrease in pitching moment. This effect effect however reduces for higher angles of attack, and even becomes
positive when flaps are retracted. The tail-on curves here are shown primarily to validate the downwash
prediction method.
Starting off by examining the tail-off pitching moments, the implemented method using the AVL input
seems to follow the trend of the wind tunnel results well. In fact, the over prediction of the AVL input
compared to the wind tunnel data mentioned earlier in Figure 8(b), seems to increase the accuracy of the
propeller slipstream prediction. This suggests that the implemented calculation is under predicting the
change in pitching moment. However, this under prediction is being compensated by a slight over prediction
in lift by AVL. The maximum error for the tail-off pitching moment is less than 10% and as such the
implemented method still adequately predicts the pitching moment in the conceptual design phase.
The tail-on pitching moments show the largest error of the validation results thus far. A (partial) reason
for this is that the tail-on pitching moment is computed using many variables calculated upstream, which
implies that any foregoing errors are carried over to the results. Secondly, as mentioned in Section C, the
assumption is made that the downwash due to propeller slipstream is caused only by the lift increase over

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 2 2.5

1.5 2

Lift coefficient, CL (~)

Lift coefficient, CL (~)
α=8
α=8 1.5
1 α=4
α=4 1 α=0
0.5
α =0
0.5 α = -4

0 α = -4
0 Wind tunnel - tail-off - CT = 0
Wind tunnel - tail-off - CT = 0
Wind tunnel - tail-off - CT = 0.6
Wind tunnel - tail-off - CT = 0.3
-0.5 Method - tail-off - CT = 0.3
Method - tail-off - CT = 0.6
-0.5 Wind tunnel - tail-on - CT = 0.6
Wind tunnel - tail-on - CT = 0.3
Method - tail-on CT = 0.3 Method - tail-on CT = 0.6
-1 -1
-0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Pitching moment coefficient, Cm, c/4 (~) Pitching moment coefficient, Cm, c/4 (~)

(a) Flaps retracted (b) Flaps 20 degrees

3

2.5
Lift coefficient, CL (~)

α=8
2
α=4

1.5
α=0

1 α = -4
Wind tunnel - tail-off - CT = 0
Wind tunnel - tail-off - CT = 0.6
0.5 Method - tail-off - CT = 0.6
Wind tunnel - tail-on - CT = 0.6
Method - tail-on CT = 0.6
0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Pitching moment coefficient, Cm, c/4 (~)

(c) Flaps 40 degrees

Figure 10. Pitching moment curves - Saab 340T

the wing due to the slipstream. Although this assumption seems valid, it remains a simplification which
could lead to inherent inconsistencies. Finally, the implemented downwash prediction is based on AVL
computations which also contain minor errors as shown in Jansen and Vos.14 Despite these errors, the
implemented method using AVL input still predicts the tail-on pitching moment with sufficient accuracy for
the conceptual design phase of a propeller aircraft.
For the Fokker 50I, the obtained results are shown in Figure 11. These graphs show the tail-off pitching
moment curves at flap deflections of 16.5 degrees and 40 degrees. No validation data was found for tail-on
curves. The curves were computed in the same manner as for the Saab 340T, in that the lift coefficients and
pitching moment coefficients were computed at various angles of attack. Both figures show similar effects as
the Saab 340T. For increasing thrust coefficient, the tail-off lift coefficient increases as expected. The tail-off
pitching moment also becomes more negative at higher thrust.
The tail-off pitching moment curves for the Fokker 50I show a similar trend as for the Saab 340T. The
change in pitching moment due to propeller thrust is slightly under predicted, especially at higher flap
deflections, but still follows the trend reasonably well. The fact that the error increases for higher flap
deflections indicates that the flap lift prediction by AVL is not entirely correct. Which is an expected result
as AVL only predicts a plain flap system, rather than more advanced flap systems typically implemented.

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 2.5
Windtunnel - CT = 0
Windtunnel - CT = 0.326 3
Tail-off lift coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Tail-off lift coefficient, CL, T-O (~)

Method - CT = 0.326
2 Windtunnel - CT = 0.815
Method - CT = 0.815
2.5
1.5

2
1
Windtunnel - CT = 0
1.5 Windtunnel - CT = 0.326
0.5 Method - CT = 0.326
Windtunnel - CT = 0.815
Method - CT = 0.815
0 1
-0.3 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0
Tail-off pitching moment coefficient, Cm, T-O, c/4 (~) Tail-off pitching moment coefficient, Cm, T-O, c/4 (~)
(a) Flaps 16.5 degrees (b) Flaps 40 degrees

Figure 11. Tail-off pitching moment curves - Fokker 50I

IV. Interpretation of Results

In this section, the results of the previous section are further interpreted and discussed to come to a better
understanding of the capabilities of the method and the impact of the propeller slipstream on the lift and
pitching moment of the aircraft.

A. Tail-Off lift coefficient

The graphs in Figures 8 and 9 show the total effect of rotating propellers on the tail-off lift coefficient. A
breakdown of the tail-off lift coefficient in its individual components is given in Table 2 for the Saab 340T
at δf = 20◦ and CT = 0.6. This breakdown lists the four variables calculated as described in Section A for
four different angles of attack as well as the power-off and total power-on lift coefficient.

Table 2. Calculated tail-off lift coefficients for the Saab 340T with flaps deflected 20 degrees and thrust
coefficient of 0.6

angle-of-attack, α (deg) -4 0 4 8
Power-off lift, CLP-O (∼) 0.574 0.971 1.344 1.690
Wing lift minus slipstream, CLW-S (∼) 0.558 0.945 1.308 1.645
Lift due to slipstream, CLS (∼) 0.306 0.381 0.458 0.528
Propeller Normal Force, CLP (∼) 0.004 0.017 0.030 0.043
Vertical thrust component, CLT (∼) -0.045 0 0.045 0.090
Total Power-on lift, CL (∼) 0.824 1.344 1.839 2.305

It can be seen that the total lift coefficient is increased by an average of 38% with respect to the power-off
condition. This could also be seen from Figure 8(b) and clearly confirms the importance of determining the
propeller slipstream effect whilst designing a propeller aircraft. One important result from Table 2 is the fact
that the majority (a minimum of 78% at an 8 degrees angle-of-attack) of the lift increase due to propeller
thrust is caused by the increased flow velocity over the slipstream section of the wing (CLS ). In fact, at -4
degrees angle-of-attack, the lift-due-to-slipstream is responsible for 116% of the increase in lift. This shows
that the one-engine-inoperative case in take-off condition can have drastic effect on the lateral lift balance
causing the aircraft to roll. Furthermore, it can be observed that the increase in lift is proportional to the
propeller thrust coefficient. This means that the propeller slipstream effect will be strongest during take-off,
where the thrust is maximum due to the low aircraft velocity.

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B. Tail-Off Pitching Moment Coefficient
The graphs in Figures 10 and 11 show the pitching moment on the x-axis as well as the lift coefficient on
the y-axis. It can be observed that the tail-off pitching moment becomes more negative (nose down) due
to rotating propellers according to the calculations and wind tunnel measurements. The pitching moment
becomes more nose down because the increase in lift over the slipstream section is applied aft of the moment
reference center. Interestingly, the effect of propeller thrust reduces for higher angles of attack. At higher
angles of attack, the positive pitching moment caused by the propeller normal force and the upwash caused
by the fuselage and nacelles reduce the nose down pitching moment effect.
Furthermore, the effect explained above becomes stronger for higher thrust coefficients as expected, but
also for higher flap deflections. The flap deflection has an influence due to the fact that deflected flaps cause
the increase in lift over the slipstream section of the wing to become larger and that the point of application
of the lift force vector on the wing moves further aft.

C. Tail-On Pitching Moment Coefficient

The horizontal tail pitching moment contribution (Cmh ) versus angle-of-attack curves are calculated. The
horizontal tail pitching moment is dependent on the downwash and average dynamic pressure at the tail.
These variables are themselves dependent on the vertical distance between the horizontal tail and the slip-
stream center line. As the Fokker 50I and Saab 340T differ in tail height, a significant difference is expected
in tail pitching moment. Figure 12 shows the effect of the propeller slipstream on the horizontal tail pitching
moment for three different flap deflections of the Saab 340T. These graphs show that the difference between
the power-on and power-off pitching moment contributions increases for higher flap deflections.
0.6
HT pitching moment, Cmh (~)

HT pitching moment, Cmh (~)

HT pitching moment, Cmh (~)

0.4 0.6
0.4
0.2 0.4
0.2
0 0.2
0
0
-0.2
Power off -0.2 Power off Power off
Power on, CT = 0.6 Power on, CT = 0.6 -0.2 Power on, CT = 0.6
-0.4 -0.4
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg)
(a) Flaps retracted (b) Flaps 20 degrees (c) Flaps 40 degrees

Figure 12. Horizontal tail pitching moment - Saab 340T

The Fokker 50I has a low horizontal tail configuration. This low tail configuration leads to additional
effects acting on the tail pitching moment as can be seen in Figure 13. Similar to the Saab 340, these figures
show the effect of propeller thrust on the tail pitching moment for three different flap deflections. Although
the power-off curves show a similar negative linear trend as before, the power-on curves are drastically
different. This difference occurs because of the nonlinear dynamic pressure and downwash inflow effects.
Furthermore, this difference also depends on the flap deflection.
HT pitching moment, Cmh (~)

HT pitching moment, Cmh (~)

HT pitching moment, Cmh (~)

0.4 0.4 0.6

0.2 0.4
0.2

0 0.2
Power off
f
0 Power off Power off
Power on, CT = 0.815 Power on, CT = 0.815 Power on, CT = 0.815
-0.2 0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg) Angle of Attack, α (deg)
(a) Flaps retracted (b) Flaps 16.5 degrees (c) Flaps 40 degrees

Figure 13. Horizontal tail pitching moment - Fokker 50I

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 Using Equation 25 for the Saab 340T, results in a negative linear curve for the power-off and power-on
conditions. As the distance between the tail and the slipstream center line in the power-on condition is greater
than the contracted propeller slipstream diameter, no nonlinear inflow effects on the downwash or dynamic
pressure increases occur. Therefore, the variation in downwash is only dependent on the lift coefficient,
which varies linearly with respect to the angle-of-attack as shown in the graphs of Figure 8. Furthermore,
the lift coefficient increases for increasing propeller thrust, resulting in a higher downwash angle. Because of
this, the tail experiences a lower effective angle-of-attack (αR − ε + ih ). The lower effective angle-of-attack
reduces the effectiveness of the tail due to a reduction in stabilizing negative (nose-down) pitching moment
at higher angles of attack.
The Fokker 50I results are more complicated. Whilst the power-off results are similar to the Saab 340,
the power-on results vary non-linearly with the angle-of-attack due to the inflow effect and dynamic pressure
increase. The inflow effect occurs in the mixing region on the boundary of the contracted slipstream tube. As
the angle-of-attack in the graphs of Figure 13 increases, the vertical distance between the tail and slipstream
center line (h) changes. Therefore, the average downwash due to inflow increases, resulting in a less effective
horizontal tail. More specifically, the maximum average downwash due to inflow occurs at different angles of
attack for the three respective flap deflections. This is because the vertical distance (h) is dependent on the
flap trailing edge position. For angles of attack beyond the angle-of-attack for maximum average downwash,
the downwash gradient (dε/dα) decreases. This translates to an increase in tail effectiveness.
The average dynamic pressure ratio (qh /q), is also a function of h and the ratio between the slipstream
diameter and the tail span. An increase in dynamic pressure at the tail increases the lift over the tail. It
follows naturally that an increase in dynamic pressure thus increases the effectiveness of the horizontal tail.
This can be seen through a steeper tail pitching moment curve. For the three flap deflections shown in Figure
13, the maximum dynamic pressure ratio occurs for the case with the flaps retracted. With flaps retracted,
the slipstream center line is not deflected by the flaps, and the vertical distance h is lowest.
In terms of effectiveness, the tail is most effective with the flaps retracted beyond an angle-of-attack of
2 degrees. This is a result a high dynamic pressure ratio in combination with a low downwash gradient
at the horizontal tail. For increased flap deflections the tail becomes progressively less effective due to the
reduced dynamic pressure and increased downwash gradient. The difference in the horizontal tail pitching
moment contribution with flap deflection, tail position, and thrust coefficient demonstrates the importance
of properly capturing the propeller slipstream effect during the conceptual design of the horizontal tailplane.

V. Conclusions
A semi-analytical method to predict the effect of the propeller slipstream on lift and pitching moment has
been investigated. This method was tested against wind tunnel data of a T-tailed Saab 340 and a Fokker
50. It was shown that the effect of the propeller slipstream on the tail-off lift coefficient was well captured
for both aircraft at various flap settings and thrust coefficients. Although less validation data was available
for the tail-on case, the tail-off and tail-on predictions of the pitching moment coefficient were shown to
be acceptable for the use during the conceptual design phase. Interpretation of the results showed that
the propeller slipstream effect increases the lift coefficient up to 38%. Furthermore, the slipstream effect
creates an additional nose-down pitching moment of the aircraft-less-tail. Furthermore, it was shown that
the vertical position of the horizontal tail is affected by the slipstream due to the effect of downwash from
the wing and increased dynamic pressure in the slipstream. Positioning the horizontal tail close to the center
line of the slipstream causes large nonlinearities in the pitching moment contribution of the horizontal tail
plane with angle-of-attack. This demonstrates that modeling the propeller slipstream effects is important
for sizing of the horizontal tail plane in the conceptual design stage. Although further validation is still
necessary, the method presented in this paper has been shown to be adequate for this task.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge the large contribution of professor emeritus ir. Ed Obert, who has developed
the presented methodology and has provided the authors with wind tunnel data to compare to. Furthermore,
the authors wish to acknowledge the help of ir. Nando van Arnhem for providing critical feedback on the
method and its implementation.

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