Unit-3

Syllabus

Vat Photopolymerization (VPP)

Vat Photopolymerization is one of the earliest and most widely used Additive
Manufacturing (AM) techniques. It uses a light source (laser/UV projector) to cure
liquid photopolymer resin in a vat, layer by layer, to form solid 3D parts.
Technologies like Stereolithography (SLA) and Digital Light Processing (DLP) are
examples.

Materials Used in Vat Photopolymerization-

 Photopolymers (Liquid Resins):

 o Acrylates and Methacrylates → Fast curing, high strength, but
brittle.
o Epoxy-based Resins → Better mechanical stability and thermal
resistance.
o Hybrid Resins → Blend of acrylates, methacrylates, and epoxies for
balanced properties.
 Additives in Resins:
o Photoinitiators (absorbing UV light and generating free radicals).
o Dyes/Pigments (to control curing depth and color).
o Fillers (ceramic or glass particles for improved stiffness or functional
properties).
 Special Resins:
o Biocompatible resins (for dental/medical).
o High-temperature resins (for engineering applications).
o Castable resins (for investment casting patterns).

Reaction Rates in Photopolymerization-

Photopolymerization is a photo-initiated chain reaction consisting of initiation,

propagation, and termination:

1. Initiation:
o Light activates the photoinitiator (PI) → generates free radicals (R•).
2. Propagation:
o Free radicals react with monomers → chain growth.
3. Termination:
o Two radicals combine or disproportionate → stops chain growth.

Key Factors Affecting Reaction Rate:

 Light intensity & wavelength: Higher intensity increases polymerization

speed.
 Photoinitiator concentration:

Too little → incomplete curing;

too much → excessive absorption.
 Resin composition & viscosity: Affects mobility of radicals and polymer
chains.
  Oxygen inhibition: Oxygen reacts with free radicals, slowing polymerization
at the surface.

Reaction rate (Rp) is often modeled as:

Photopolymerization Process Modelling:

Process modeling helps predict curing depth, width, and accuracy of the printed
part.

 Beer–Lambert Law (Light Penetration):

Light intensity decays exponentially with depth:
 Lateral Curing (Overcuring):
 Occurs due to scattering and diffusion of light.
 Leads to wider cured tracks than intended.
 Needs compensation in scan strategy.

 Shrinkage & Warpage:

 Caused by volumetric shrinkage (3–7%) during curing.
 Modeled in mechanical simulations for dimensional accuracy.

Scan Patterns in Vat Photopolymerization:

Scan patterns determine how the laser or light source moves to cure resin:

1. Raster Scan (Hatch Style):

o Laser sweeps back and forth across the layer.
o Common in SLA; efficient for large cross-sections.
2. Contour + Hatch Scan:
o Perimeter (contour) is scanned first for accuracy.
o Interior is filled using raster hatching for speed.
3. Point-wise Scan:
o Laser cures discrete points in sequence.
o Suitable for small, detailed areas.
4. Vector Scan (Outline First):
o Outlines the boundary, then fills interior.
o Improves surface quality and dimensional precision.
5. Full-layer Projection (DLP):
 o Entire layer exposed in one flash using a digital micromirror device
(DMD).
o Faster than laser-based SLA, but limited by projector resolution.

Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Processes

Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) is a family of Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques
where a thin layer of powdered material (metal, polymer, or ceramic) is spread on
a build platform and selectively fused together using a thermal energy source
(laser or electron beam). After one layer is fused, the build platform lowers, and a
new layer of powder is spread. This process continues layer by layer until the final
3D part is formed.

Working Principle-

1. A recoater or roller spreads a thin layer of powder over the build platform.
2. An energy source (laser/electron beam) scans the powder bed, selectively
fusing particles based on the CAD model cross-section.
3. The build platform lowers by one layer thickness (20–100 μm typical).
4. A fresh layer of powder is deposited, and the process repeats.
5. After completion, the part is surrounded by unfused powder, which is
removed and recycled.
Types of PBF Processes-

Depending on the energy source and fusion mechanism, PBF has multiple
variants:

 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS): Uses a laser to sinter polymer powders (e.g.,
nylon, TPU).
 Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS): Sintering of metal powders, not fully
melted.
 Selective Laser Melting (SLM): Laser completely melts metal powders (e.g.,
Ti, Al, Inconel).
 Electron Beam Melting (EBM): Uses an electron beam in a vacuum to fully
melt metallic powders.
 Multi Jet Fusion (MJF, by HP): Uses fusing and detailing agents with
infrared energy for polymer powders.

Materials in PBF-

 Polymers: Nylon (PA12, PA11), TPU, PEEK (for SLS).

 Metals: Titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V), Aluminum alloys (AlSi10Mg), Stainless
Steel, Inconel, Cobalt-Chrome.
 Ceramics/Composites: Alumina, zirconia (still in development).

Material requirements: spherical powder particles, controlled particle size (10–

100 µm), good flowability, and high purity.

Powder Fusion Mechanism-

Fusion in PBF depends on the thermal energy interaction with powder:

 Solid-State Sintering (low energy): Particles are partially fused at contact

points, leaving porosity.
 Liquid Phase Sintering: Binder or lower-melting constituent melts,
improving bonding between particles.
 Full Melting: Entire particle melts and solidifies, creating near-full density
(e.g., SLM, EBM).

Key Steps:

1. Powder layer deposition by a roller/recoater.

 2. Energy beam (laser/e-beam) scans and fuses selected regions.
3. Platform lowers; new powder layer is spread.
4. Process repeats until part is complete.

Process Parameters in PBF-

Several parameters affect quality, density, and mechanical properties of printed

parts:

 Laser/Beam Power: determines energy available for melting, Controls

melting depth and fusion strength.
 Scan Speed:
 Higher speed reduces energy per unit area;
 too fast → poor bonding, too slow → overheating.

 Hatch Spacing: Distance between adjacent scan lines; affects porosity and
surface quality.
 Layer Thickness: Thinner layers = better resolution but slower build.
 Energy Density (ED):

 Preheating Temperature (for EBM/SLS): Reduces thermal stresses and

warpage.
 Shielding Gas: Argon/nitrogen used to prevent oxidation (in metals).

Process Modeling in PBF-

Modeling helps predict heat transfer, melt pool dynamics, and part quality.

 Thermal Modeling: Heat distribution in powder bed, predicting cooling

rates and microstructure.
 Melt Pool Modeling: Simulates fluid flow, solidification, and defect
formation (porosity, balling).
 Powder Spreading Models: Analyze particle size distribution, packing
density, and layer uniformity.
  Residual Stress/Distortion Models: Predict warpage and cracking due to
rapid heating/cooling cycles.
 Multi-Physics Simulations: Combine thermal, mechanical, and fluid
dynamics for accurate predictions.

Powder Handling in PBF-

Powder management is crucial for safety, part quality, and cost efficiency:

 Powder Storage: Must be kept dry, inert, and sealed to avoid moisture
absorption and oxidation.
 Powder Recycling: Unfused powder is collected and reused; however,
multiple cycles can degrade particle size, shape, and flowability.
 Health & Safety: Metal powders (especially Ti and Al) are flammable and
hazardous; need explosion-proof handling and personal protective
equipment (PPE).
 Sieving & Classification: Ensures consistent particle size distribution before
reuse.
 Inert Gas Environment: Argon/nitrogen atmosphere used to minimize
oxidation during processing.

Applications of PBF-

 Aerospace: Lightweight turbine blades, fuel nozzles (GE LEAP engine

nozzle).
 Medical: Patient-specific implants (titanium hip joints, dental crowns).
 Automotive: Prototypes, lightweight structures, racing car components.
 Defense: Complex cooling channels in missile/engine parts.
 Consumer Goods: Customized eyewear, sports equipment.

Advantages of PBF-

 High accuracy and fine resolution.

 Ability to process high-performance metals/polymers.
 Near-net-shape parts → minimal post-processing.
 Complex geometries, lattice structures possible.
 Customization (medical implants, dental prosthetics).
Limitations of PBF-

 High cost of equipment and powders.

 Slow build rate compared to other AM techniques.
 Residual stress & distortion due to rapid cooling.
 Strict powder handling and safety requirements.
 Post-processing often required (support removal, heat treatment).

Extrusion Based System in Additive Manufacturing

Basic Principles-
 Working Mechanism:
In extrusion-based additive manufacturing, a filament or paste-like
material is heated and extruded through a nozzle to deposit material layer
by layer.

 Key Steps:
1. Material (thermoplastic filament, paste, or slurry) is fed into an
extruder.
2. Heating element melts or softens the material.
3. A nozzle moves in x–y direction to deposit material according to CAD
data.
4. The build platform moves in the z-direction after each layer is
completed.
 Deposition: Controlled by nozzle size, extrusion rate, and head movement
speed.
 Examples: FDM (Stratasys), 3D Bioprinting (extrusion of bio-inks), Food
printing.
Plotting and Path Control-

Plotting and path control define how the nozzle moves and material is deposited:

a. Tool Path Generation

 Based on slicing software that converts 3D CAD models into G-code.

 The model is sliced into thin layers (0.1–0.5 mm thick).
 For each layer, a tool path is generated:
o Contour/Perimeter path: Outlines the part boundary.
o Infill pattern: Zig-zag, honeycomb, or rectilinear patterns to fill the
interior.

b. Motion Control

 Motion is typically controlled by CNC or robotic systems.

 Requires precise synchronization between extrusion rate and nozzle
movement speed.

c. Path Strategies

 Raster Pattern: Parallel lines; fast but less accurate.

 Contour-Hatch Pattern: Outer contour + inner hatch; balances strength and
accuracy.
 Adaptive Path Control: Modifies deposition paths based on part geometry
and stress zones.
Other Systems (Variants of Extrusion Based AM)-

While FDM is the most common, several other extrusion-based systems exist:

a. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) / Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)

 Uses thermoplastic filaments (PLA, ABS, PETG, Nylon).

 Heated nozzle extrudes molten polymer layer by layer.
 Most widely used system in desktop 3D printers.

b. Direct Ink Writing (DIW)

 Uses viscous inks, hydrogels, ceramics, or composites.

 Material extruded through a syringe/nozzle.
 Used in bioprinting (cells, bio-inks) and ceramics.

c. Paste Extrusion Systems

 For food printing (chocolate, dough, cheese, etc.).

 Extrusion at low temperatures without melting.

d. Metal Extrusion (Bound Metal Deposition – BMD)

 Uses filaments/pastes filled with metal powder + polymer binder.

 After extrusion, parts are debindered and sintered to get dense metal
parts.

e. Concrete/Construction 3D Printing

 Extrusion of cement-based pastes for large-scale structures.

 Automated robotic arms or gantry systems used for deposition.

Advantages of Extrusion Based Systems-

 Simple and cost-effective.

 Wide range of materials (plastics, composites, metals, bio-materials).
 Easy maintenance and operation.
 Good for prototyping and functional parts.
 Can scale from desktop printers to large construction printers.
Limitations-

 Surface finish is relatively rough (visible layer lines).

 Mechanical properties anisotropic (weaker in Z-direction).
 Limited resolution compared to Vat Photopolymerization or PBF.
 Limited speed for large parts.

Applications:

 Prototyping: Product design validation, functional testing.

 Medical: Bioprinting tissues, dental models, prosthetics.
 Aerospace/Automotive: Low-cost fixtures, prototypes, lightweight polymer
parts.
 Consumer Goods: Customized items, toys, spare parts.
 Construction: 3D-printed houses and structures.
 Food Industry: Customized chocolates, pasta, and bakery products.

Material Jetting in Additive Manufacturing

Material Jetting (MJ) is an additive manufacturing process where droplets of
build material are selectively deposited onto a build platform, similar to inkjet
printing. Each droplet is cured (by UV light or solidification) immediately after
deposition, and the process continues layer by layer.

It offers high precision, smooth surface finish, and multi-material capability,

making it one of the most accurate AM processes.
Materials Used in Material Jetting-

The materials must be in a liquid or semi-liquid form before deposition and

should solidify rapidly after jetting. Common materials include:

 Polymers:
o Photopolymers (acrylate-based, epoxy-based) cured with UV light.
o Thermosetting resins.
 Waxes:
o Used in investment casting patterns (3D printing of wax molds).
 Metals (Emerging Research):
o Liquid metal jetting (tin, aluminum alloys – still experimental).
 Composites:
o Multi-material blends (rigid + flexible polymers).
 Biomaterials:
o Hydrogels, cell-laden inks for bioprinting.

Material Processing Fundamentals-

Material Jetting follows inkjet printing principles but in 3D.

a. Droplet Formation

 Printhead jets tiny droplets (10–50 μm diameter) of material.

 Two types of jetting mechanisms:
 o Piezoelectric Jetting: Voltage pulse deforms a piezoelectric crystal,
ejecting a droplet.
o Thermal Jetting: A heater vaporizes liquid, creating a bubble that
forces a droplet out.

b. Solidification / Curing

 UV-curable photopolymers: Droplets instantly cured by UV lamps.

 Phase change materials: Wax or thermoplastics solidify upon cooling.
 Reactive curing: Chemical cross-linking after jetting.

c. Layer Formation

 Droplets are deposited in precise locations according to CAD model slice

data.
 After curing/solidification, the build platform lowers, and the next layer is
deposited.

d. Support Materials

 Secondary support material (e.g., dissolvable wax) is also jetted and later
removed.

Material Jetting Machines-

Several commercial systems and machine categories exist:

a. PolyJet (Stratasys)

 Jets photopolymers cured with UV light.

 Supports multi-material and multi-color printing.
 Applications: prototypes, medical models, tooling.

b. MultiJet Printing (3D Systems)

 Uses wax and photopolymer resins.

 High accuracy, smooth surface finish.
 Often used for casting patterns and dental models.

c. NanoParticle Jetting (XJet)

 Jets liquid suspensions of ceramic or metal nanoparticles.

  Material is later sintered to achieve full density.

d. Bioprinters

 Extrude hydrogels or bio-inks using jetting technology.

 Used for tissue scaffolds and organ research.

Advantages-

 High resolution & accuracy (layer thickness: 16–32 μm).

 Smooth surface finish – minimal post-processing.
 Multi-material capability (rigid + flexible, transparent + colored).
 Full-color printing possible.

Limitations-

 Limited to photopolymers, waxes, and specific materials.

 Materials may be brittle and not suitable for functional end-use parts.
 Higher cost compared to extrusion systems (FDM).
 Support removal required.

Applications-

 Prototyping: Full-color prototypes for product design.

 Medical & Dental: Anatomical models, dental crowns, surgical guides.
 Investment Casting: Wax patterns for precision casting.
 Consumer Goods: Customized jewelry, fashion items.
 Bioprinting: Tissues and organ research.

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Processes

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) is an Additive Manufacturing (AM) process in
which focused thermal energy (laser, electron beam, or plasma arc) is used to
melt material as it is being deposited.
  Unlike Powder Bed Fusion (PBF), where powder is spread in a layer, in DED
the material is fed directly to the deposition point and fused
simultaneously.
 DED is especially useful for repairing, coating, and adding features to
existing parts, in addition to building new parts.

Working Principle:

1. A high-energy source (laser, electron beam, or arc) creates a melt pool on

the substrate.
2. Material (powder or wire) is continuously delivered into the melt pool.
3. The deposited material solidifies to form a track.
4. The process is repeated in overlapping passes, and the build platform or
deposition head moves layer by layer according to CAD data.

DED is often performed using multi-axis robotic arms or CNC machines to achieve
complex geometries.

Material Delivery in DED-

Material delivery is a key aspect of DED, and it can be done in two primary ways:

a. Powder-Based Delivery

 Powder Feed System: Metal powder is carried by an inert carrier gas (argon
or helium) through nozzles and directed into the melt pool.
 Nozzle Configurations:
o Coaxial Nozzle: Powder is delivered uniformly around the laser beam
→ better accuracy and multi-directional deposition.
 o Side Nozzle: Powder enters the melt pool from one or more sides →
simpler but less precise.
 Advantages:
o Ability to blend powders (alloying during printing).
o Suitable for fine features.
 Challenges:
o Lower efficiency (40–60% of powder may not be captured).
o Expensive powder preparation required.

b. Wire-Based Delivery-

 Wire Feed System: A continuous metal wire is fed directly into the melt
pool.
 Advantages:
o Nearly 100% material utilization (no powder waste).
o Safer handling than fine metal powders.
o Faster deposition rates.
 Challenges:
o Lower resolution compared to powder.
o Limited variety of materials compared to powder systems.

Energy Sources Used in DED-

 Laser (L-DED): Uses high-power lasers; precise and widely used in

aerospace/medical.
 Electron Beam (EBAM): Conducted in a vacuum; good for reactive metals
like titanium.
 Plasma Arc / Electric Arc (Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing – WAAM):
Uses electric arc with wire feed; cost-effective and high deposition rate.

Applications of DED-

 Repair and Remanufacturing: Restoring worn-out turbine blades, molds,

and dies.
 Coating & Cladding: Applying corrosion-resistant or wear-resistant layers.
  Hybrid Manufacturing: Adding material onto conventionally manufactured
parts.
 Aerospace & Defense: Titanium and Inconel components, structural
repairs.
 Energy Sector: Repair of turbine components, pipelines.

Process Parameters in DED-

DED quality depends heavily on controlling process parameters:

a. Energy Source Parameters

 Laser/E-beam/Arc Power: Controls melt pool size & penetration.

 Beam Spot Size: Influences resolution and surface quality.
 Beam Travel Speed: Too high → lack of fusion; too low → overheating,
distortion.

b. Material Feed Parameters

 Powder Flow Rate / Wire Feed Rate: Must balance with energy input to
avoid porosity or excess buildup.
 Carrier Gas Flow Rate: Ensures powder transport and protects molten pool.

c. Layer & Path Parameters

 Layer Thickness: Affects accuracy, deposition rate, and residual stress.

 Hatch Spacing / Overlap: Determines bonding between tracks.
 Scanning Strategy: Raster, spiral, or contour-first patterns affect
microstructure.

d. Environmental Parameters

 Shielding Gas Type: Argon, Helium, or Nitrogen to prevent oxidation.

 Chamber Pressure: Especially critical for EBAM (vacuum environment).

Processing–Structure–Properties (PSP) Relationships-

DED follows the fundamental AM chain:

Processing → Microstructure → Properties

a. Processing → Structure

 Heat Input & Cooling Rate affect grain size and morphology:
o High cooling → fine grains, higher strength.
o Low cooling → coarse grains, anisotropy.
 Multiple Passes / Overlapping Tracks → reheating causes remelting,
refinement, or defects.
 Powder vs Wire Feed:
o Powder → possibility of porosity, better alloying flexibility.
o Wire → fully dense structure, columnar grains.

b. Structure → Properties

 Mechanical Properties:
o Fine grains → high strength but lower ductility.
o Columnar grains → anisotropic behavior.
 Residual Stresses & Distortion: High heat gradients create internal stresses,
may require post-process heat treatment.
 Porosity & Defects: Poor fusion or powder contamination reduces fatigue
strength.

c. Properties Tailoring

 Heat Treatment: Used to relieve stresses and homogenize microstructure.

 Alloy Design: Multi-material DED allows functionally graded materials
(FGMs) → tailored properties.
 Surface Properties: Hardfacing & coatings improve wear, corrosion, and
fatigue resistance.