01-Oct-23

EEE 321
Electromechanical Energy Conversion – I
By
Prof. Dr. A. Mete VURAL
mvural@[Link]

CHAPTER 2

TRANSFORMERS

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Introduction
• Transformer is an electrical machine that converts ac electrical energy/power at
one voltage level to ac electrical energy/power at another voltage level through
the action of magnetic field.

AC ELECTRICAL AC ELECTRICAL
ENERGY ENERGY
AT ONE AT ANOTHER
VOLTAGE LEVEL VOLTAGE LEVEL

Introduction
Who invented the transformer? Ottó
Bláthy, Miksa Déri, Károly Zipernowsky of
the Austro-Hungarian Empire First
designed and used the transformer in both
experimental, and commercial systems.
Later on Lucien Gaulard, Sebstian Ferranti,
and William Stanley perfected the design.

The original 1885 Stanley prototype transformer at the Berkshire Museum.

Source: [Link]
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Introduction
Why are transformers important ?
• Transformers make possible electric generation at the most economical generator voltage, power transfer at the
most economical transmission voltage, and power utilization at the most suitable voltage for the particular
utilization device.

Introduction
Why are transformers important ?
• Transformer is also widely used in low-power, low-current electronic and control circuits for performing such
functions:
➢ Matching the impedances of a source and its load for maximum power transfer
➢ Isolating one circuit from another
➢ Isolating direct current while maintaining ac continuity between two circuits

Source: [Link]

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Introduction
• Transformer consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core.
• These coils are (usually) not directly (electrically) connected.
• The only connection between the coils is the common magnetic flux present within the core.

The winding The winding connected

connected to the to the loads is called
power source is «secondary winding»
called «primary or «output winding».
winding» or
«input winding» I f there is a third
winding on the
transformer, it is called
«tertiary winding»
2-winding single-phase transformer
7

Construction Of Transformers
• Power transformers are constructed by two types of cores.
• These are «core form» and «shell form».
• In core form, there is a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings wrapped
around two sides of the rectangle.
• In shell form, there is a three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the center leg.
• In either case, the core is constructed of thin laminations electrically isolated from each other in order to
minimize eddy currents.

core form shell form 8

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Construction Of Transformers

Source: [Link]

Construction Of Transformers
• The primary and secondary windings in a physical transformer are wrapped one on top of the other with the low-
voltage winding innermost. Such an arrangement serves two purposes:

➢ It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
➢ It results in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the two windings were separated by a distance on
the core.

Source: [Link]
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Transformer Types
• Unit transformer: This transformer is a step-up transformer and connected to the output of a generator and
used to step the voltage from (10-36 kV) up to transmission levels (110 kV or more).

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250 MVA,110 kV three phase unit transformer

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Transformer Types
• Substation transformer: This transformer is a step-down transformer and connected to the end of a
transmission line in a substation and used to step the transmission voltage from (110 kV or more) down to
distribution levels (36 kV or less).

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50/60 MVA ONAN/ONAF 230kV/13.8kV substation power transformer

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Transformer Types
• Distribution transformer: This transformer is a
step-down transformer and connected to the end
of a distribution line and used to step the
distribution voltage from (36 kV or less) down to
the low voltage level (1 kV or less).

pole type
transformer

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Transformer Types
Some examples to distribution transformers

200KVA 11/0.415KV Distribution Transformer 50KVA 33/0.415KV Distribution Transformer

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Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

• The figure shows schematically a transformer with its
secondary side open-circuited.

• Then a alternating voltage v1 is applied to the primary

terminals.

• Now, a small steady-state current 𝒊∅ , called the «exciting

current», flows in the primary.

• This exciting current establishes an alternating flux in the

magnetic circuit (Ampere’s Law).

• This flux induces a counter emf (e1) in the primary side as

follows: (Faraday’s Law) The exciting current of a typical
power transformer is about 1 to
2 percent of full-load current

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Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

• If R1 is the resistance of the primary winding, this
resistance causes a small voltage drop and the following
voltage equation can be written:

Under no-load conditions:

❖ we can neglect the effects of primary leakage flux

❖ Resistive voltage drop is too small
❖ The waveforms of voltage and flux are very nearly sinusoidal

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Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

• If the instantaneous flux in the core is

• The induced voltage can be written as

• The rms value of the induced voltage is

• if R1 is ignored

𝑣1 ≈ 𝑒1 𝑉1 ≈ 𝐸1
• The peak flux is then determined as
𝑉1
𝐸1 ∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≈
∅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁1
2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 19

Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

Non-sinusoidal
exciting current having
odd-harmonics

Excitation phenomena. (a) voltage, flux, and

exciting current (b) corresponding hysteresis loop
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Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

Fundamental
component

The principal harmonic is the

third. For typical power
transformers, the third harmonic
usually is about 40 percent of the
fundamental component of
Source: [Link] exciting current.

21

Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

• Since exciting current is about 1-2 % of rated current and the third harmonic component is about 40% of the
fundamental component of exciting current, the effects of harmonics are very small under no-load condition
and can be neglected in the analysis.
• So the fundamental component is approximately the same as the exciting current itself.
• The fundamental component of exciting current can be resolved into two components:
➢ One is in-phase with the counter emf
▪ This component supplies the power absorbed by hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the core.
▪ It is referred to as core-loss component of the exciting current.
➢ The other one is lagging the counter emf by 90°
▪ This component is called the “magnetizing current”.

Ic is the in-phase component

Im is the lagging component and called «magnetizing current»

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No-load phasor diagram

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Transformer Analysis: No-load Condition

Core loss calculation:
• The core loss (Pc) (hysteresis + eddy current losses)
is calculated as follows:

where

𝑃𝑐 is the core loss of the transformer (Watt)

𝐸1 is the rms value of the induced voltage (V)
𝜃𝑐 is the power factor angle of exciting current

Pc must be multiplied by 3 if the

transformer is a three-phase transformer.

23

Ideal Transformer
We assume the followings for an ideal transformer;

• Winding resistances (R1,R2) are negligible

• All the flux is confined to the core and links both
windings (leakage flux is negligible) Ideal transformer and load
• There are no losses in the core
• Permeability of the core is so high

• The flux in the core is generated as follows: Iron core

Air core

• Since, the same flux also links the secondary :

Schematic symbols of a transformer
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Ideal Transformer
• If a load is connected to the secondary side, load current i2
flows through secondary winding as shown.

• This current generates a MMF = N2i2 at the secondary side.

• If we think that MMF is like EMF (voltage source), the Ideal transformer and load
following equation can be written:

+ +
MMF1 MMF2 MMF1 - MMF2 = 0
- -

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MMF1 MMF2

Ideal Transformer
• The “turns ratio” of a transformer is defined as
𝑁1 𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼2
𝑎= = 𝑎= =
𝑁2 𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼1

• Since “a” is a real number for ideal transformer:

Ideal transformer and load
❑ The phase angles of 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are same.
❑ The phase angles of 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are same.

• For a step-up transformer ➔ a < 1

• For a step-down transformer ➔ a > 1
• For an insulating transformer ➔ a = 1

• For an ideal transformer, instantaneous power at both sides are same:

𝑉1 𝐼2 1
=𝑎 =𝑎 Because ideal transformer is an
𝑉2 𝐼1 𝑣1 𝑖1 = 𝑎𝑣2 𝑖 = 𝑣2 𝑖2
𝑎 2 ideal device having no loss
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Ideal Transformer
• Since instantaneous power is same at both sides,
active and reactive power as well as complex and
apparent power at both sides are also same

𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos(𝜃) Ideal transformer and load

𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 cos(𝜃) Active power is same

𝑉1
𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑎𝐼 cos 𝜃 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝑎 1
𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝑆𝑠𝑒𝑐 Complex power is same
𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝑆𝑠𝑒𝑐 Apparent power is same
𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) Reactive power is same
𝑉1
𝑄𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑎𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑄𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝑎 1 27

Ideal Transformer
Dot Convention:
1) If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the
winding with respect to the undotted end, then the
secondary voltage will be positive at the dotted end also.

1) If the primary current of the transformer flows into the

dotted end of the primary winding, the secondary current
will flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.

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Ideal Transformer

The magnetization curve of an ideal transformer

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Impedance Transformation in a Transformer

• An impedance (ZL) at the secondary side of a
transformer can be transferred to the primary side or
vice-versa:

𝑉𝑃ൗ
𝑉𝑆 𝑎 1 𝑉𝑃
𝑍𝐿 = = = 2
𝐼𝑆 𝑎𝐼𝑃 𝑎 𝐼𝑃

• If we call 𝑍𝐿 ′ = 𝑉𝑃 /𝐼𝑃

𝑍𝐿 ′ = 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿 (Referred impedance to the primary side)

• In reality, there is no actual movement of this

impedance. This is just in theory which simplifies our
calculations.

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Impedance Transformation in a Transformer

• Current and voltage can also be transferred from one
side to another:
By making transformations,
the transformer symbol is
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆 eliminated from the circuit.
𝑎=
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = = 𝐼𝑆 ′ (Referred current to the primary side)
𝑎

𝑉𝑃
𝑎= 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑎𝑉𝑆 = 𝑉𝑆 ′ (Referred voltage to the primary side)
𝑉𝑆
𝐼𝑆
𝐼𝑆 ′ 𝑎

𝑉𝑆 ′ OR 𝑎𝑉𝑆 𝑎2 𝑍𝐿

Before transformation
After transformation 31

Ideal Transformer
Example:
Compare the transmission losses of both
simple power systems.

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Theory of Real Single-Phase Transformers

• The total flux (∅𝑷) linking the primary winding is divided into two components:

➢ Mutual Flux (∅𝑴 )

∅𝑃 = ∅𝑀 + ∅𝐿𝑃
➢ Primary Leakage Flux (∅𝐿𝑃 )

Mutual flux ( ∅𝑴 ) is
confined to the iron core
and produced by the
combined effect of the
primary and secondary
currents
LOAD

Primary leakage flux (

∅𝑳𝑷 ) is the flux which
links only the primary
winding and occurs due
to the finite magnitude
of core permeability 33

Theory of Real Single-Phase Transformers

• Similarly, the total flux (∅𝑺 ) linking the secondary winding is divided into two components:
Secondary leakage flux (
➢ Mutual Flux (∅𝑴 ) ∅𝑳𝑺 ) is the flux which
∅𝑆 = ∅𝑀 + ∅𝐿𝑆
➢ Secondary Leakage Flux (∅𝐿𝑆 ) links only the secondary
winding and occurs due
to the finite magnitude
Mutual flux ( ∅𝑴 ) is
of core permeability
confined to the iron core
and produced by the
combined effect of the
primary and secondary
currents
LOAD

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Theory of Real Single-Phase Transformers

35

Theory of Real Single-Phase Transformers

• Applying Faraday’s Law to the primary side: • Applying Faraday’s Law to the secondary side:

Primary voltage Voltage component Secondary voltage Voltage component

component caused caused by the component caused caused by the
by the mutual flux primary leakage flux by the mutual flux secondary leakage flux

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Theory of Real Single-Phase Transformers

Turns Ratio:

• The above equation means that the ratio of the primary voltage caused by the mutual flux to the secondary
voltage caused by the mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.

• In a well-designed transformer,

37

Theory of Real Single-Phase Transformers

• If a load is connected to the secondary side, load current i2
flows through secondary winding as shown.

• This current generates a MMF = NSiS at the secondary side.

• If we think that MMF is like EMF (voltage source), the

following equation can be written:

+ +
MMF1 MMF2 MMF1 - MMF2 = 0 A real transformer with a load
- - connected to its secondary

In a well-designed 𝑖𝑆 𝑁𝑃
transformer, core ℛ≈0 ≈
𝑖𝑃 𝑁𝑆
reluctance is very small
38
MMF1 MMF2

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

We have to consider the following points when modelling a real transformer:
1) Copper losses: Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer. They are proportional to the square of the current in the windings.
Core Losses

2) Eddy current losses: Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer. They are
proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.

3) Hysteresis losses: Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core
during each half-cycle, as explained before. These losses are proportional to the applied voltage.

4) Leakage flux: These fluxes escape the core and pass through only one of the windings. Leakage fluxes produce a
self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance must be considered.

39

Leakage
reactance of
The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer primary side
𝑋𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐿𝑃
How to model leakage flux in the primary side ?
We call this inductor as «self-
• Voltage component caused by the primary leakage flux inductance of the primary
winding» and use it to model
leakage flux of the primary in
the equivalent circuit of the
transformer
• The above equation can be written in terms of flux linkage:
𝑑
𝜆𝐿𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃 𝜙𝐿𝑃 𝑒𝐿𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝜆
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑃 𝐿𝐿𝑃

• Since flux linkage is equal to the inductance x current:

𝑑 𝑑 Well-known voltage/current
𝜆𝐿𝑃 = 𝐿𝐿𝑃 𝑖𝑃 𝑒𝐿𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿𝑃 𝑖𝑃 𝑒𝐿𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿𝑃 𝑖𝑃 equation for an inductor
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
40

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Leakage
reactance of
The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer secondary side
𝑋𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿𝐿𝑆
How to model leakage flux in the secondary side ?
We call this inductor as «self-
• Voltage component caused by the secondary leakage flux inductance of the secondary
winding» and use it to model
leakage flux of the secondary in
the equivalent circuit of the
transformer
• The above equation can be written in terms of flux linkage:
𝑑
𝜆𝐿𝑆 = 𝑁𝑆 𝜙𝐿𝑆 𝑒𝐿𝑆 (𝑡) = 𝜆
𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝑆 𝐿𝐿𝑆

• Since flux linkage is equal to the inductance x current:

𝑑 𝑑 Well-known voltage/current
𝜆𝐿𝑆 = 𝐿𝐿𝑆 𝑖𝑆 𝑒𝐿𝑆 (𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿𝑆 𝑖𝑆 𝑒𝐿𝑆 (𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿𝑆 𝑖𝑆 equation for an inductor
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
41

The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

How to model core losses ?
• The exciting current can be resolved into two components:
➢ One is in-phase with the counter emf
▪ This component supplies the power absorbed by hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the core.
▪ It is referred to as core-loss component of the exciting current.
➢ The other one is lagging the counter emf by 90°
▪ This component is called the “magnetizing current”.

A shunt resistor in the

excitation branch can be
used to model core losses

An shunt inductor in
the excitation branch core-loss component of exciting current
can be used to model
magnetizing current
exciting current
magnetizing current 42

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The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Copper losses of Primary leakage Copper losses of Secondary leakage

RMS value of
primary winding reactance secondary winding reactance
primary current
RMS value of
secondary side
current
RMS value of
primary applied
voltage Shunt resistance
representing RMS value of
core losses
secondary side LOAD
(hysteresis+eddy
current losses) voltage

Shunt (magnetizing) reactance

Excitation branch
used to model magnetizing
current The exact circuit model of a single-phase real transformer 43

The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

• The ideal transformer symbol can be removed from the equivalent circuit by refereeing one side into another as
shown below:

Equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer Equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer

referrred to PRIMARY side referrred to SECONDARY side

44

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Approximate Equivalent Circuits

• Approximate equivalent circuit can be obtained by shifting the excitation branch to the left side.

Referred to the primary side Referred to the secondary side

Excitation branch is moved to LEFT

FOUNDATION: Under normal operation, the voltage drop in Rp and Xp is very small and can be neglected. 45

Approximate Equivalent Circuits

• A further approximate equivalent circuit can also be obtained by completely removing the excitation branch.

Referred to the primary side Referred to the secondary side

Excitation branch is REMOVED

FOUNDATION: Especially, in power system analysis, excitation branch can be removed in which the
results are not so much effected from this action. Because excitation branch current is much less
than the primary current of the transformer under rated conditions.
46

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Approximate Equivalent Circuits

Example: A 50-kVA 2400:240-V 60-Hz distribution transformer has a leakage impedance of 0.72 + j0.92 ohm in the
high-voltage winding and 0.0070 + j0.0090 ohm in the low-voltage winding. At rated voltage and frequency, the
impedance of the shunt branch (equal to the impedance of Rc and jXm in parallel) accounting for the exciting current
is 6.32 + j43.7 ohm when viewed from the low-voltage side.

Draw the equivalent circuit referred to

(a) the high-voltage side
(b) the low-voltage side, and label the impedances numerically.

47

Self-study
The equivalent circuit shows an ideal transformer with an impedance of (R2+jX2) equals to 1 + j4 ohm
connected in series with the secondary. The turns ratio N1/N2 = 5:1. (a) Draw an equivalent circuit with the
series impedance referred to the primary side. (b) For a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a short connected
across the terminals A-B, calculate the primary current and the current flowing in the short.

48

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Self Study
The 50-kVA 2400:240-V 60-Hz single-phase distribution transformer has a leakage impedance of 0.72 + j0.92 ohm
in the high-voltage winding and 0.0070 + j0.0090 ohm in the low-voltage winding. This transformer is used to step
down the voltage at the load end of a feeder whose impedance is 0.30 + j 1.60 ohm. The voltage Vs at the sending
end of the feeder is 2400 V. Find the voltage at the secondary terminals of the transformer when the load
connected to its secondary draws rated current from the transformer and the power factor of the load is 0.80
lagging. Neglect excitation branch.

One-line diagram of the system referred to HV side Phasor diagram of the system

49

Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

• It is possible to experimentally determine the values of the inductances and resistances in the transformer
approximate model (slide no:46).

• An adequate approximation of these values can be obtained by two tests:

➢ Open-circuit test
➢ Short-circuit test

• In the open-circuit test, the secondary side is open-circuited and excitation branch parameters are
approximayely found.

• In the short-circuit test, the secondary side is short-circuited and series equivalent impedance is
approximayely found.

50

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Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

=0
Open Circuit Test: Consider this
circuit if
measurement
devices are
replaced at
PRIMARY side

=0
Consider this
circuit if
measurement
devices are
replaced at
Connection of measurement devices at the PRIMARY SECONDARY side
side in the open circuit test

51

Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

Steps of Open Circuit Test:
• The full (rated) line voltage is applied to the primary of the
transformer.
• The input voltage, input current, and input real power to the
transformer are measured by the voltmeter, ammeter, and
wattmeter, respectively as shown in the figure.
• From this information, it is possible to determine the
excitation impedance using the equations below:
=0
• The magnitude of the excitation admittance (referred to the
primary side) can be found as
Open
circuit
Ammeter reading
Voltmeter reading

52

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Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

Steps of Open Circuit Test:
• The power factor angle of the excitation branch is calculated as

Wattmeter reading
(Power factor angle)

Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading

• From the information of 𝒀𝑬 and 𝜽, it is possible to calculate 𝑅𝐶

and 𝑋𝑀 , as follows:

Phase angle is
always LAGGING
53

Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

Short Circuit Test: Consider this
circuit if
measurement
0= devices are
replaced at
PRIMARY side

Consider this
circuit if
Connection of measurement devices at the PRIMARY measurement
side in short-circuit test 0= devices are
replaced at
SECONDARY side

54

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Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

Steps of Short Circuit Test:
• The secondary terminals of the transformer are short
circuited.
• The primary terminals are connected to a fairly low-voltage
source.
• The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short-
circuited windings is equal to its rated value. (Be sure to
keep the primary voltage at a safe level. It would not be a
good idea to burn out the transformer's windings while
trying to test it.)
• The input voltage, input current, and input real power are short
again measured by the voltmeter, ammeter, and =0 circuit
wattmeter, respectively.
• From this information, it is possible to determine the series
impedance using the following equations:

55

Determining Equivalent Circuit Parameters

Steps of Short Circuit Test:
• The magnitude of the series impedance (referred to the primary side)
can be found as
Voltmeter reading
Ammeter reading

• The power factor angle of the series impedance is calculated as

Wattmeter reading
(Power factor angle)

Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading

(also named as “short-
• From the information of 𝒁𝑬 and 𝜽, it is possible to
circuit impedance”)
calculate 𝑅𝑒𝑞 and 𝑋𝑒𝑞 , as follows:
56

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Self-study
The equivalent circuit impedances of a 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 60-Hz transformer are to be determined. The open-
circuit test and the short-circuit test were performed on the primary side of the transformer, and the following
data were taken:

Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit (slide no:46, figure b) referred to the primary side, and
sketch that circuit.

57

Voltage Regulation of Transformers

• A practical transformer has always a series impedance.

• As a result, the secondary (output) voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the primary (input)
voltage remains constant.

• Voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage difference between no load and full load (rated) voltages of a
transformer with respect to its full load voltage.

• Voltage regulation is a performance parameter of the transformers which is used for comparison of transformers.

A well-designed An ideal
transformer will transformer will
normally has low have zero voltage
where voltage regulation regulation
𝑉𝑅 is the voltage regulation in % percentage which is mostly less
𝑉𝑠,𝑛𝑙 is the no-load voltage of secondary side than 10%.
𝑉𝑠,𝑓𝑙 is the full-load (rated load) voltage of secondary side
58

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Voltage Regulation of Transformers

• Voltage regulation equation can be in different forms:

Equivalent circuit of
single-phase
𝑉𝑝 − 𝑎𝑉𝑠 transformer referrred
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑎𝑉𝑠 to PRIMARY side

Equivalent circuit of
single-phase
𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 − 𝑉𝑠 transformer referrred
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑉𝑠 to SECONDARY side

59

Voltage Regulation of Transformers

• Voltage regulation equation can be in different forms:

𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑢 𝑅𝑝𝑝𝑢 𝑗𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑢 𝑅𝑠𝑝𝑢 𝑗𝑋𝑠𝑝𝑢 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑢

𝑉𝑝𝑥𝑝𝑢 − 𝑉𝑠𝑝𝑢
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100% 𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑢 𝑉𝑝𝑥𝑝𝑢 𝑉𝑠𝑝𝑢
𝑉𝑠𝑝𝑢

Per-unit equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer

60

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Transformer Phasor Diagram

Case-1: Lagging PF Load:

Phase angle of Is is negative

Phasor diagram of a transformer operating at a

lagging power factor

𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 − 𝑉𝑠 (Voltage regulation is
𝑉𝑅 = Since 𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 > 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑅 > 0
𝑉𝑠 always positive for
lagging PF loads )

61

Transformer Phasor Diagram

Case-2: Unity PF Load:

Phase angle of Is is zero

Phasor diagram of a transformer operating at

unity power factor

𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 − 𝑉𝑠 (Voltage regulation is
𝑉𝑅 = Since 𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 > 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑅 > 0
𝑉𝑠 always positive for
unity PF loads )

62

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Transformer Phasor Diagram

Case-2: Leading PF Load:

Phase angle
of Is is positive

Phasor diagram of a transformer operating at

leading factor

𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 − 𝑉𝑠 (Voltage regulation is
𝑉𝑅 = Since 𝑉𝑝 /𝑎 < 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑅 < 0
𝑉𝑠 always negative for
leading PF loads )

63

Voltage Regulation of Transformers

• So far, we have seen that voltage regulation can be either positive or negative depending on the load power factor type.

• Also, voltage regulation changes as load changes as seen below:

𝑉𝑅 > 0 if for LAGGING PF load

𝑉𝑅 > 0 if for UNITY PF load

𝑉𝑅 < 0 if for LEADING PF load

64

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Transformer Efficiency
• The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of its output real (active) power (𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕) to its input real
(active) power (𝑷𝒊𝒏 ), usually expressed in % percentage.

• The efficiency of an ideal transformer is 100%.

• For practical transformers, the efficiency is close but less than 100%.

• The efficiency is a performance parameter like “voltage regulation”, used to compare transformers.

• The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated by the following equation:

Vs is the rms voltage of secondary side

Is is the rms current of secondary side
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = Vs. Is. cos(𝜃𝑠 ) 𝜃𝑠 is the phase angle between Vs and Is
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = Vp. Ip. cos(𝜃𝑝 ) Vp is the rms voltage of primary side
Ip is the rms current of primary side
𝜃𝑝 is the phase angle between Vp and Ip 65

Transformer Efficiency
Typical efficiencies for some power transformers

Source: [Link]

66

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Transformer Efficiency
• The output real power of a transformer is always less than its input real power, because of the real losses.

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 < 𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

• Because of this fact, the efficiency is always less than 100%.

< 100%

• The real losses are due to the

➢ Copper losses of the primary and secondary windings
➢ Hysteresis losses of the core 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
CORE LOSSES
➢ Eddy current losses of the core
(iron losses)

67

Transformer Loss Calculation

• The real losses can be calculated according to the type of the equivalent circuit of the transformer:

2
𝐼𝑠
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑅𝑝 𝐼𝑝 2 + 𝑎2 𝑅𝑠
𝑎
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 2
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝑅𝐶

Equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer referrred to PRIMARY side

𝑅𝑝
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = (𝑎𝐼𝑝 )2 + 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑠 2
𝑎2

𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦 2
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝑅𝐶
𝑎2
68
Equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer referrred to SECONDARY side

34
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Transformer Loss Calculation

• There are also reactive losses of the transformers, besides their real losses.

• Reactive losses are due to the

➢ Leakage reactance of the primary winding
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 + 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
➢ Leakage reactance of the secondary winding
➢ The reactance of the core

Reactive power consumption of some distribution

69
transformers with 20 kV primary windings

Transformer Loss Calculation

• The reactive losses can be calculated according to the type of the equivalent circuit of the transformer:

2
𝐼𝑠 Reactive losses of
𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝑋𝑝 𝐼𝑝 2 + 𝑎2 𝑋𝑠
𝑎 both windings
𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 2
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = Reactive losses
𝑋𝑀 of the core

Equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer referrred to PRIMARY side

𝑋𝑝
𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = (𝑎𝐼𝑝 )2 + 𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝑠 2
𝑎2
𝑄𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 + 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑉𝑦 𝑉𝑦 2
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 =
𝑋𝑀
𝑎2
70
Equivalent circuit of single-phase transformer referrred to SECONDARY side

35
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Self-study
• Solve the Example 2.5 at page 103 from Chapman

71

Self-Study
An open circuit and short-circuit tests are performed on a 50-kVA 2400:240-V single-phase transformer and the
following data are obtained. Find at first, the equivalent circuit parameters of the transformer and determine the
efficiency and the voltage regulation at full load for a power factor of
a) 0.95 lagging
b) 0.75 leading
c) Unity

Open circuit test (on the HV side) Short circuit test (on the HV side)
Voltmeter reading = 240 V Voltmeter reading = 48 V
Ammeter reading = 5.41 A Ammeter reading = 20.8 A
Wattmeter reading = 186 W Wattmeter reading = 617 W

72

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Autotransformers
• If a there is an electrical connection between the primary and secondary circuits, then this type of transformer is called “autotransformer”.

• In a conventional two-winding transformer, the primary and secondary windings are electrically isolated.

• In autotransformer, the windings are both magnetically coupled as well as electrically connected

• This is the major difference between autotransformer and two-winding transformer.

• In autotransformer, the voltage ratio is close to 1:1.

• Autotransformers have some advantages such as lower leakage reactance, lower losses, smaller exciting current, and lower cost when
compared to two-winding transformers.

• The disadvantage of autotransformers is that, unlike ordinary transformers, there is a direct physical connection between the primary and the
secondary circuits, so the electrical isolation of the two sides is lost.

d a d a

c b c b
Two-winding transformer
Electrical connection Autotransformer 73

Autotransformers
Example: The 50-kVA, 2400:240-V transformer is connected as an autotransformer, as shown in the figure. The
winding ab is the 240-V winding, while the winding dc is the 2400-V winding.
(It is assumed that the 240-V winding has enough insulation to withstand a voltage of 2640 V to ground.)
a) Compute the voltage and current ratings of high-voltage and low-voltage sides, respectively.
b) Compute the kVA rating of the autotransformer.

50𝑘𝑉𝐴 Input KVA rating:

𝐼𝑃 = = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖 𝑨
2400𝑉 𝑆𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑃 = 2400𝑉 228.8𝐴 = 𝟓𝟒𝟗. 𝟏𝟐𝒌𝑽𝑨
50𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼𝑆 = = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝑨 𝐼𝑆= Output KVA rating:
240𝑉
𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑆 a 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑆 = 2640𝑉 208𝐴 = 𝟓𝟒𝟗. 𝟏𝟐𝒌𝑽𝑨
d a 240V
d d,b KCL at point d: 208 A+20.8 A=228.8 A
c b = 𝐼𝑃
2400V/240V c
50-kVA
74

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Autotransformers
Example: If the losses of the transformer (50-kVA, 2400:240-V) given in the previous example is 800 W, calculate the
efficiency of this transformer under rated conditions for a power factor of 0.8 lagging, if it were connected as an
autotransformer.

𝐼𝑃 𝐼𝑆
d a
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 50𝑘𝑉𝐴∗0.8
Efficiency = 𝑥100% = = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟑%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 50𝑘𝑉𝐴∗0.8+800𝑊
c b Losses do not change
50 kVA, 2400V/240V since primary voltage
is constant and each
winding has same
current rating

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 549.12𝑘𝑉𝐴∗0.8
Efficiency = 𝑥100% = = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟓% Better!
𝑃𝑖𝑛 549.12𝑘𝑉𝐴∗0.8+800𝑊

75
549.12 kVA, 2400V/2640V

Autotransformers

200 MVA, Distribution Auto-transformer / Oil-

immersed
Source: [Link]

0.5 kVA, 110V/0-130V Variac (Variable Autotransformer)

76

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Self-study
• Solve Example 2.7 at page 113 from Chapman
• Solve Example 2.8 at page 116 from Chapman

77

Three-phase Transformers
• Almost all the major power generation and distribution systems in the world today are three-phase AC systems.
• Three-phase transformers are used to interconnect these systems having different voltage levels.

Source: [Link]
78

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Three-phase Transformers
• Transformers for three-phase circuits can be constructed in two different ways:
➢ The first approach is simply to take three single-phase transformers and connect them as a three-phase bank.

The advantage is that each unit in

independent core the bank could be replaced
individually in case of failure.

A three-phase transformer bank composed of independent transformers 79

Three-phase Transformers
• Transformers for three-phase circuits can be constructed in two different ways:
➢ The second approach is to make a three-phase transformer consisting of three sets of windings wrapped on a
common core.
➢ This option is mostly preferred in practice today.

The advantages are

❑ It is lighter
❑ It is smaller
❑ It is cheaper
❑ It is more efficient

A three-phase transformer wound on a single three-legged core. 80

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Three-phase Transformers

Source: [Link]

81

Three-phase Transformers
• The primaries and secondaries of any three-phase transformer can be independently connected in either Wye
(Y) or Delta (D).
• This gives a total of four possible connections for three-phase transformers:

1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y) or Star-Star

2) Wye-Delta (Y-D) or Star-Delta

3) Delta-Wye (D-Y) or Delta-Star

4) Delta-Delta (D-D)

Common three-phase transformer connections. The

transformer windings are indicated by the heavy lines
82

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Three-phase Transformers
1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection:
• In this connection type, both the primary and secondary side are connected in Wye (Y) as shown below.

N n
83
Y-Y wiring diagram

Three-phase Transformers
1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection:
• In this connection type, both the primary and secondary side are connected in Wye (Y) as shown below.
LL voltages

LL voltages

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 − 𝑉𝐶𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 − 𝑉𝑐𝑛
𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶𝑁 − 𝑉𝐴𝑁 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿 (pri. side line-to-line voltages)
𝑉𝐴𝑁 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉𝐶𝑁 = 𝑉𝐿𝑁 (pri. side line-to-neutral voltages)
A b
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝑎𝑏
B a 𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 3𝑉𝐿𝑁

𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑉𝐴𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑏𝑐

𝑉𝐶𝐴 N n 𝑉𝑐𝑎 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑙𝑙 (sec. side line-to-line voltages)
𝑉𝐵𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝑁 𝑉𝑐𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑙𝑛 (sec. side line-to-neutral voltages)
c
C 𝑉𝑙𝑙 = 3𝑉𝑙𝑛
Neutral
PRIMARY points SECONDARY
SIDE SIDE 𝑉𝐿𝑁 𝑉𝐿𝐿 / 3 𝑉𝐿𝐿
Y-Y connection diagram 𝑎= = = (turns ratio)
𝑉𝑙𝑛 𝑉𝑙𝑙 / 3 𝑉𝑙𝑙 84

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Three-phase Transformers
1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection:
• In this connection type, both the primary and secondary side are connected in Wye (Y) as shown below.
LL voltages

LL voltages
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 − 𝑉𝐶𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 − 𝑉𝑐𝑛
𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶𝑁 − 𝑉𝐴𝑁 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎𝑛

A b
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝑎𝑏
B a
𝑉𝐵𝑁 𝑉𝐴𝑁 𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑏𝑐
𝑉𝐶𝐴 N n 𝑉𝑐𝑎
𝑉𝐵𝐶
𝑉𝐶𝑁 𝑉𝑐𝑛
c
C Primary Side
Neutral Secondary Side
PRIMARY points SECONDARY Phasor diagrams of Y-Y connection
SIDE SIDE
Y-Y connection diagram Source: [Link]
85

Three-phase Transformers
1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection:

𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐴 𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝑎

𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐵 𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝑏
𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐶 𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝑐 𝐼𝐿𝐴 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side line currents)

𝐼𝐿𝐴 𝐼𝐿𝑏 𝐼𝑝𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side phase currents)
A b
𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖
B a
𝐼𝐿𝐵 𝐼𝐿𝑎 𝐼𝐿𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿𝑏 = 𝐼𝐿𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐼𝑝𝐵 N 𝐼𝑝𝐴 𝐼𝑝𝑏 n 𝐼𝑝𝑎 (sec. side line currents)

𝐼𝑝𝐶 𝐼𝑝𝑐 𝐼𝑝𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side phase currents)
𝐼𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝐿𝑐
c
C 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐
Neutral
PRIMARY points SECONDARY
𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐
SIDE SIDE 𝑎= = (turns ratio)
Y-Y connection diagram 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖
86

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Three-phase Transformers
The Attributes of Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection:

• The Y-Y connection is seldom used because:

➢ If loads connected to the transformer are unbalanced, then the LL voltages of the transformer can become
severely unbalanced due to unequal voltage drops on phase impedances of the transformer.

➢ Third-harmonic voltages can be large because of the nonlinearity of the transformer core.

• Both problems negatively affect the power quality of the power system in which this type of transformer is
connected.

• The unbalance problem and the third-harmonic problem can be solved using one of two techniques:

87

Three-phase Transformers
The Attributes of Wye-Wye (Y-Y) Connection:

Both the unbalance problem and the third-harmonic problem can be solved using one of two techniques:

1) Solidly ground the neutral points (N and n) of the Y-Y 2) Add a third (tertiary) winding to the transformer as
transformer: By this way, the neutral provides a return shown below. By this way, the third-harmonic voltages
path for any current imbalances in the load. Moreover, by cause a circulating current flow within this winding and
this way, the third-harmonic currents flow in the neutral harmonics will not be reflected outside of the windings.
instead of building up unwanted large third-harmonic
voltages.

88

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 01-Oct-23

Three-phase Transformers
2) Wye-Delta (Y-D) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary is connected as Wye (Y) and secondary is connected as Delta (D) as shown below.

89
Y-D wiring diagram

Three-phase Transformers
2) Wye-Delta (Y-D) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary is connected as Wye (Y) and secondary is connected as Delta (D) as shown below.

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 − 𝑉𝐶𝑁 LL voltages at
PRIMARY SIDE
𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶𝑁 − 𝑉𝐴𝑁
A 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿 (pri. side line-to-line voltages)
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝑁 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 = 𝑉𝐶𝑁 = 𝑉𝐿𝑁 (pri. side line-to-neutral voltages)
a
B
𝑉𝐴𝑁 𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 3𝑉𝐿𝑁
𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑎𝑏
N
𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑉 𝑉𝑐𝑎 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑙𝑙 (sec. side line-to-line voltages)
𝐶𝑁
b
C
𝑉𝑏𝑐
c 𝑉𝐿𝑁 𝑉𝐿𝐿 / 3
𝑎= = (turns ratio)
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE 𝑉𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑙𝑙
90
Y-D connection diagram

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Three-phase Transformers
2) Wye-Delta (Y-D) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary is connected as Wye (Y) and secondary is connected as Delta (D) as shown below.

𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝑁 − 𝑉𝐵𝑁

𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵𝑁 − 𝑉𝐶𝑁 LL voltages at
PRIMARY SIDE
𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐶𝑁 − 𝑉𝐴𝑁
N
A
𝑉𝐴𝐵
a
B
𝑉𝐴𝑁
𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝐵𝑁
𝑉𝑎𝑏
N
𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝑁 𝑉𝑐𝑎
b Primary Side Secondary Side
C
𝑉𝑏𝑐
c Phasor diagrams of Y-D connection
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE Source: [Link]
91
Y-D connection diagram

Three-phase Transformers
2) Wye-Delta (Y-D) Connection:

𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐴 𝐼𝐿𝐴 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side line currents)
𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐵 𝐼𝑝𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side phase currents)
𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝐶
𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝐼𝐿𝐴
A
𝐼𝐿𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿𝑏 = 𝐼𝐿𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side line currents)
𝐼𝐿𝐵 𝐼𝐿𝑎
a
B 𝐼𝑝𝐴 𝐼𝑝𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side phase currents)
𝐼𝑝𝐵 𝐼𝑝𝑏 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3. 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐
N
𝐼𝑝𝑎
𝐼𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝑝𝐶 𝐼𝐿𝑏
b 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 / 3
C 𝑎= = (turns ratio)
𝐼𝑝𝑐 𝐼𝐿𝑐 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖
c
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE
92
Y-D connection diagram

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 01-Oct-23

Three-phase Transformers
The Attributes of Wye-Delta (Y-D) Connection:
• This connection has no problem with third-harmonic components in its voltages, since they are consumed in a
circulating current on the delta side.

• This connection is also more stable with respect to unbalanced loads, since the delta side partially redistributes
any imbalance that occurs.

• This arrangement has a property that the primary side LL voltages are leading the secondary side LL voltages by
30° degrees.

• This natural phase shift can cause problems during paralleling different types of transformers. For example when
paralleling a Y-Y transformer and a Y-D transformer.

• Since, the phase angles of the secondary voltages must be same if two transformers are connected in parallel for
load sharing.

93

Three-phase Transformers
The Attributes of Wye-Delta (Y-D) Connection:

• The Y-D connection is commonly used in stepping down from a high voltage to a medium or low voltage.
• One reason is that a neutral is provided for grounding on the high-voltage side that is used to protect the
transmission line from very high fault currents and to reduce insulation costs of the transmission side.

Y-D

94

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Three-phase Transformers
3) Delta-Wye (D-Y) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary is connected as Delta (D) and secondary is connected as Wye (Y) as shown below.

D-Y wiring diagram 95

Three-phase Transformers
3) Delta-Wye (D-Y) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary is connected as Delta (D) and secondary is connected as Wye (Y) as shown below.

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛

𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 − 𝑉𝑐𝑛 LL voltages at
SECONDARY SIDE
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎𝑛
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿 (pri. side line-to-line voltages)

a
𝑉𝑎𝑏
A
b
𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑙𝑙 (sec. side line-to-line voltages)
𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝑉𝑐𝑎
𝑉𝐴𝐵
n 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑙𝑛 (sec. side line-to-neutral voltages)
𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝑏𝑐
𝑉𝑐𝑛
B c 𝑉𝑙𝑙 = 3𝑉𝑙𝑛
𝑉𝐵𝐶
C 𝑉𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝐿𝐿
SECONDARY SIDE 𝑎= = (turns ratio)
PRIMARY SIDE 𝑉𝑙𝑛 𝑉𝑙𝑙 / 3 96
D-Y connection diagram

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Three-phase Transformers
3) Delta-Wye (D-Y) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary is connected as Delta (D) and secondary is connected as Wye (Y) as shown below.

𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 − 𝑉𝑏𝑛

𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑏𝑛 − 𝑉𝑐𝑛 LL voltages at
SECONDARY SIDE
𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐𝑛 − 𝑉𝑎𝑛

a n
𝑉𝑎𝑏
A
b
𝑉𝑎𝑛
𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝑉𝑐𝑎
𝑉𝐴𝐵
n
𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝑏𝑐
𝑉𝑐𝑛
Primary Side Secondary Side
B c
𝑉𝐵𝐶 Phasor diagrams of D-Y connection
C
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE Source: [Link]
97
D-Y connection diagram

Three-phase Transformers
3) Delta-Wye (D-Y) Connection: 𝐼𝐿𝐴 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side line currents)

𝐼𝑝𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side phase currents)

𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝑎
𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 3. 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝑏
𝐼𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒−𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒−𝑐

𝐼𝐿𝑎 𝐼𝐿𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿𝑏 = 𝐼𝐿𝑏 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side line currents)

a
𝐼𝐿𝐴 𝐼𝑝𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side phase currents)
A
𝐼𝑝𝑎 b 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐼𝑝𝑏 𝐼𝐿𝑏
𝐼𝑝𝐴
n
𝐼𝑝𝐵
𝐼𝐿𝐵 𝐼𝑝𝑐 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐
B c 𝑎= = (turns ratio)
𝐼𝑝𝐶 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 / 3
𝐼𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝐿𝑐
C
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE
98
D-Y connection diagram

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 01-Oct-23

Three-phase Transformers
The Attributes of Delta-Wye (D-Y) Connection:

• The D-Y connection has the same advantages and the same phase shift as the Y-D transformer.
• The D-Y connection is commonly used in stepping up from medium or low voltage to a high voltage.
• One reason is that a neutral is provided for grounding on the high-voltage side that is used to protect the
transmission line from very high fault currents and to reduce insulation costs of the transmission side.

D-Y 99

Three-phase Transformers
4) Delta-Delta (D-D) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary and secondary side are connected as Delta (D) as shown below.

100
D-D wiring diagram

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 01-Oct-23

Three-phase Transformers
4) Delta-Delta (D-D) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary and secondary side are connected as Delta (D) as shown below.

A a
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐶𝐴 = 𝑉𝐿𝐿 (pri. side line-to-line voltages)

𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝑎𝑏 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐𝑎 = 𝑉𝑙𝑙 (sec. side line-to-line voltages)
𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝑐𝑎
B b 𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑎= (turns ratio)
𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑉𝑏𝑐 𝑉𝑙𝑙
C c
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE

D-D connection diagram

101

Three-phase Transformers
4) Delta-Delta (D-D) Connection:
• In this connection type, the primary and secondary side are connected as Delta (D) as shown below.

A a

𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑉𝑎𝑏
𝑉𝐶𝐴 𝑉𝑐𝑎
B b
𝑉𝐵𝐶 𝑉𝑏𝑐
C c
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE Primary Side Secondary Side

D-D connection diagram Phasor diagrams of D-D connection

Source: [Link]
102

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Three-phase Transformers
4) Delta-Delta (D-D) Connection: 𝐼𝐿𝐴 = 𝐼𝐿𝐵 = 𝐼𝐿𝐶 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side line currents)

𝐼𝑝𝐴 = 𝐼𝑝𝐵 = 𝐼𝑝𝐶 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 (pri. side phase currents)

𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 = 3𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖
𝐼𝐿𝑎
𝐼𝐿𝐴
A a
𝐼𝐿𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿𝑏 = 𝐼𝐿𝑏 = 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side line currents)
𝐼𝑝𝐵 𝐼𝑝𝐴 𝐼𝑝𝑎
𝐼𝑝𝑎 = 𝐼𝑝𝑏 = 𝐼𝑝𝑐 = 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 (sec. side phase currents)
𝐼𝑝𝑏 𝐼𝐿𝑏
𝐼𝐿𝐵
B 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐
b
𝐼𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝑝𝐶 𝐼𝑝𝑐 𝐼𝐿𝑐
C c
PRIMARY SIDE SECONDARY SIDE 𝐼𝑝−𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐼𝐿−𝑠𝑒𝑐 / 3
𝑎= = (turns ratio)
D-D connection diagram 𝐼𝑝−𝑝𝑟𝑖 𝐼𝐿−𝑝𝑟𝑖 / 3

103

Derating of a Transformer
• If a 60-Hz transformer is to be operated on 50-Hz power system, its applied voltage (primary) must also be reduced
by a factor of 1/6.
• If this is not done, the transformer core can go to the saturation region and the peak flux in the core will be too high.
• This reduction in applied voltage together with the frequency is called «derating».

(primary applied voltage)

(flux in the core is calculated by Faraday’s Law)

𝑉𝑀
This ratio must be held constant
𝑤

• By considering the same equation, a 50-Hz transformer may be operated at a 20 % higher voltage
on 60-Hz power system if this action does not cause insulation problems.
104

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Inrush Current Problem

• We know that the flux in the core is determined by the primary voltage of the transformers.

• The phase angle of primary voltage will effect the result of this integral, for example if

• Or;

• As seen above, depending on the phase angle, the maximum flux can be different
• We know that the magnetization current and the maximum flux are related with each other.

105

Inrush Current Problem

• The applied phase angle of the voltage is
not normally controlled on starting, so
there can be huge inrush currents during
the first several cycles after the
transformer is connected to the line.

• The transformer and the power system to

which it is connected must be able to
withstand these currents.

The inrush current due to a transformer's magnetization

current on starting
106

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The Transformer Nameplate

107

Self-study
• Solve all problems of Chapter 2 from Chapman

108

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Review Questions
1) Is the turns ratio of a transformer the same as the ratio of voltages across the transformer? Why or why not?
2) Why does the magnetization current impose an upper limit on the voltage applied to a transformer core?
3) What components compose the excitation current of a transformer? How are they modeled in the transformer 's equivalent circuit?
4) What is the leakage flux in a transformer? Why is it modeled in a transformer equivalent circuit as an inductor?
5) List and describe the types of losses that occur in a transformer.
6) Why does the power factor of a load affect the voltage regulation of a transformer?
7) Why does the short-circuit test essentially show only I2R losses and not excitation losses in a transformer?
8) Why does the open-circuit test essentially show only excitation losses and not I 2R losses?
9) Why can autotransformers handle more power than conventional transformers of the same size?
10) What are the problems associated with the Y - Y three-phase transformer connection?
11) What types of connections can be used? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
12) Can a 60-Hz transformer be operated on a 50-Hz system? What actions are necessary to enable this operation?
13) What happens to a transformer when it is first connected to a power line? Can anything be done to mitigate this problem?
14) A distribution transformer is rated at 18 kVA, 20,000/480 V, and 60 Hz. Can this transformer safely supply 15 kVA to a 415-V load at 50 Hz? Why or
why not?
15) Why does one hear a hum when standing near a large power transformer?

109

END OF CHAPTER 2

TRANSFORMERS

110

55