UNIT III
AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL (LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL)
1. Introduction
For small changes, active power is dependent on internal machine angle and bus
voltage is dependent on machine excitation.
Therefore, load frequency and excitation voltage controls are non-interactive and
independent.
Excitation voltage control (Automatic Voltage Regulation, AVR) is fast acting in
which the major time constant encountered is that of the generator field; while the
load frequency control (LFC, AGC) is slow acting with major time constant
contributed by the turbine and generator moment of inertia.
2. Turbine Speed Governor Model
Figure shows schematically the speed governing system of a steam turbine.
The system consists of the following components:
o Fly ball speed governor: This senses the change in speed (frequency). As
the speed increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage
mechanism moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed
decreases.
o Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston
arrangement. Low power level pilot valve movement is converted into high
power level piston valve movement.
o Linkage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another
rigid link pivoted at D.
o Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the
turbine. Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more
steam is admitted to the turbine.
Transfer Function is given by
Block Diagram
R =speed regulation of the governor
Ksg = gain of speed governor
Tsg = time constant of speed governor
3. Turbine Model
Figure shows a two stage steam turbine with a reheat unit.
For ease of analysis, the turbine can be modeled to have a single time constant
which typically lies in the range of 0.2 to 2.5 s.
4. Generator Load (Power System) Model
Generator is assumed to be lossless, therefore, Pt = PG.
The increment in power input to the generator-load system is PG – PD where
PD is the load demand increment.
This increment in power input to the system causes change in frequency and this causes:
1. Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in the generator rotor.
2. Rate of change of demanded load with respect to frequency.
3. ∂PD /∂f can be regarded as nearly constant for small changes in frequency f
Taking the Laplace Transform and rearranging, we get
Block Diagram
5. Single Area LFC
A complete block diagram representation of an isolated power system comprising
turbine, generator, governor and load is easily obtained by combining the block
diagrams of individual components
6. Free Governor Operation
The model shows that there are two important inputs to the load frequency control
system PC, the change in speed changer setting; and PD, the change in load
demand.
Let us consider a simple situation in which the speed changer has a fixed setting
(i.e., PC = 0) and the load demand changes.
This is known as free governor operation.
For such an operation, the steady change in system frequency for a sudden change
in load demand by an amount PD , is obtained as follows:
For simplicity assume KsgKt = 1. Also Kps = 1 /B.
The above equation gives the steady state changes in frequency caused by changes in
load demand.
-R
If B is much smaller than R,
7. Speed Changer Setting changed with Fixed Load Demand
Consider now the steady effect of changing speed changer setting (PC(s) = PC/s) with
load demand remaining fixed (i.e., PD = 0). The steady state change in frequency is
given by
If the speed changer setting is changed by PC while the load demand changes by PD,
the steady frequency change is obtained as
8. Problem:
Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governors are 4% and 5%, respectively from no load to full load.
Assuming that the generators are operating at 50 Hz at no load, how would a load of 600
MW be shared between them? What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume
free governor operation. Repeat the problem if both governors have a droop of 4%.
If both governors have a droop of 4%, they will share the load as 200 MW and 400 MW,
respectively.
9. Dynamic Response
To obtain the dynamic response giving the change in frequency as function of the time
for a step change in load, we must obtain the Laplace inverse of
The characteristic is of third order, therefore we make approximation Tsg = Tt = 0 and
Ksg Kt = 1. The block diagram of Single Area LFC therefore reduces to
Therefore,
and
10. Problem
Evaluate the dynamic response of a Single Area LFC to a 1% increase in load demand, if
R = 3, Kps = 1/B = 100, Tps = 20.
Solution: PD = 0.01 pu
11. Proportional Plus Integral Controller
The steady load frequency characteristic for a given speed changer setting has
considerable droop from no load to full load.
So much change in frequency cannot be tolerated.
In fact, it is expected that the steady change in frequency will be zero.
For this purpose, a signal from f is fed through an integrator to the speed changer
resulting in the block diagram as shown below.
The system now modifies to a PI controller, which, gives zero steady state error,
i.e., f |steady state = 0.
12. Control Area and Area Control Error
Consider a system with a number of generating stations and loads.
It is possible to divide an extended such a system (say, national grid) into subareas
(may be, SEBs) in which the generators are tightly coupled together so as to form
a coherent group, i.e., all the generators respond in unison to changes in load or
speed changer settings.
Such a coherent area is called a control area in which frequency is constant.
In central load frequency control of a given control area, the change (error) in
frequency is known as Area Control Error (ACE).
The additional signal feedback in the modified control scheme presented above
is the integral of ACE.
13. Two Area Load Frequency Control
Consider a two-area connected by a single tie line as illustrated in Figure.
The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area and to
simultaneously regulate the tie line power as per inter-area power contracts.
As in the case of frequency, PI controller will be installed so as to give zero steady
state error in tie line power flow as compared to the contracted power.
Each control area can be represented by an equivalent turbine, generator and
governor system.
Power transported out of area 1 is given by
For incremental changes in 1 and 2, the incremental tie line power can be expressed as
Since incremental power angles are integrals of incremental frequencies, we can write
The incremental power balance equation for area 1 can be written as
Taking the Laplace transform of Eq. (8.31) and re-organizing, we get
For a two area system, the Area Control Error (ACE) is redefined as a linear
combination of incremental frequency and tie line power.
The block diagram of a two area load frequency control is a shown below.
14. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
Figure gives the schematic diagram of an automatic voltage regulator of a generator.
It consists of a main exciter which excites the alternator field to control the output
voltage.
The exciter field is automatically controlled through error e = V Ref – VT, suitably
amplified through voltage and power amplifiers.
The important components are
o Potential transformer It gives a sample of terminal voltage VT.
o Differencing device: It gives the actuating error e = VRef – VT
o Error amplifier: It demodulates and amplifies the error signal.
o SCR power amplifier and exciter field: It provides the necessary power
amplification to the signal for controlling the exciter field.
o Alternator: Its field is excited by the main exciter voltage VE. Under no load
it produces a voltage proportional to field current.
o Stabilising transformer: The dynamic response of the control system can be
improved by the internal derivative feedback loop provided by means of a
stabilizing transformer excited by the exciter output voltage VE. The output
of the stabilising transformer is fed negatively at the input terminals of the
SCR power amplifier.
Block Diagram of the AVR
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