Public Administration(Paper-l)

| 238
Models
Fred W. Riggs and His C o r

Fred W. Riggs was born in Kuling Chinain 1917. He received his doctorate in Political Scienc i n t e

from Columbia University in 1948. He became the Chairman of Comparative Administrative Groug
from its inception in 1961 till the end of1970. He was a pioneer in discussing ecological perspecti frot

mover in the initial stages of CPA

whe

of Comparative Public Administration. He was the prime me

Some of the well known publications of Riggs are The Ecolog of Public Administration The
Administration in
(1961). Prismatic Society Applied, Prismatic Society Revisited(1975), Developing fiv
Countries (1964) and Frontiers of Development Administration (1970). are

Riggs took up an elaborate study on non-western systems and tried to take note of impacts of fur
environment on the administrative systems. He was one of the vanguards in emphasizing the fur
importance of ecological and environmental perspective in study of CPA. Riggs in his study oñ Ag
Comparative Public Administration identified three broad trends viz.
1. Normative to Empirical: The traditional studies of Public Administration were descriptie co

historical and normative in nature. The major focus should be on empirical studies ie. t A
arrive at inferences on the basis of extensive field study instead of normative descriptions re
2.
Ideographicto Nomothetic: An ideographic approachis based on configurative studies ie a

the study concentrates on the unique cases - study of single agency or country. On the othet
hand, nomothetic approach seeks generalization, laws and hypothesis that assert regularity of
behaviour and correlations with variables. The objective of nomothetic study is to look at the
similarities and differences of various administrative systems existing in different nations and
cultures and then draw certain generalizations relating to administrative systems,functioning
at various levels in different settings. Earlier most of the studies in comparative public
were ideographic in nature but it is slowly shifting the trend to nomothetic studies.
administration
3. Non-ecological to Ecological: The traditional studies are mostly cultural-bound, ethnocentric
and Eurocentric or Western centric. The studies ignored the
environmental influences on the
administrative systems. The studies undertaken after World War II are largely
and cross-national and focused on the impacts of cross-cultural
environment to the administrative systems
and sub-systems.
After identifying the three trends, Riggs has taken up
studies on non-western systems. He used three important empirical, nomothetic and ecolog1ca
theories - ecological approach, structural-functional analytical tools to explain his administrabe
approach and ideal models.
Administration and its environment influence each other and the
of this process is necessary to understandthe understanding of the dynai
administration.
approach, Ecology is a term borrowed from biology. It This approach is termed as ecologic
interrelationship of organisms and their environment. Thus, deals with the science concerned w
the interaction between the ecology of PublicAdministration mea
administration and its environment.
Long before Fred Riggs, the
initiated by J. M. Gaus, Robert Dahlecological approach in the study of Public Administration Wa
and RobertA. Merton. But it was
contribution to this approach. According to J. M. Riggs who madeea distinctive
the study of people, area or property, Gaus, the ecology of Public Administration includes
remarked that organization is apart of thoughts, individuality and emergency conditions. Wal
complex cultural system.
 To Riggs, ecology has five technical
Chapter-7:Comparative Public Administration
The factors -- cconomic, (239
c o m u m

administration
between the
u n i c a t i o n ,

interacts with all these social, technological, political and

administration
SceGireonune five components of ecology. The
i n t e r a c t i o n s

and environment
mainly used are
Riggs
ecological Dont of view. approach in structural-functional
twO-ways traffie.
peciye
A.
fhom
who had adopted
by which the
Talcott Parsons, Robert
approach
Mertonanalyzing
and
the administrative systems
structural-functional
in their studies. Almond, etc. are other thinkers
mechan1sns
functions are discharged. Asingle Structures are the administrative
stration There are structures which may have
negative functions - structure may take up multiple functions.
eloping five important functions
discharged in every
economic, social, communications,
society. The structural-functional
dysfunctional.
symbolic and
And Riggs opined that
are political functions
acts of functions that are carried out in the approach is a method of analyzing the
society, the structures that are responsible to discharge the
ng the functions and the methods that are
adopted in undertaking the functions.
udy of Agraria-Industria Typology
Riggs developed certain ideal models to analyse
iptive, uniries. He first used his much published models the administrative systems of developing
in 1956,by
1.e. to Aorarian - agricultural society, represented by Imperial China classifying the societies into two
and Industria - industrial society
ons. renresented by USA. And Riggsbelieved that all the societiestransform from agraria
es i.e. to industria at
agiven point of time. He identified the following as the structural features of agraria and
industria
other
ity of Agraria Industria
atthe Ascriptive values - all those characteristics Achievement values - the society emphasizes
Sand which accrue automatically by virtue of birth, on achievements.
oning age, kinship, etc.
ration Particularistic- closely linked with ascriptive Universalistic -treatment meted on non
values. Treatment of individuals, based on discriminatory basis.
ntric ascriptive values.
n the Diffuse pattern - functionally diffused this Specificity-functionally specific there is high
tural means the structure or institution performs level of specialization. Each structure has
specific functions.
tems
muitiple functions. e.g. A tribal chief is the
head of everything.
ical Limitedsocial and spatial mobil1ty. Higher social and spatial mobility.
Well-developed occupation patterns
ative Simpie and stableoccupational differences. is
Existence of egalitarian class system. There
XIstence of differential stratification. equalityin the society.
nics
here is hierarchy of organization.
represents the
mode
equilibrium named transitia, which
with Later in 1957, Riggs developed an characteristics of both agraria
and industria.
industria and possessthe
a n s

transforming SOcieties from agrariatato Transitia

Industria

Agraria
having a number
of limitations, The
Wwas
criticized as sufficient
The typology agraria-industria was system does not provide
of societies. The
agrarian features.
tive

des typology is Snot helpful in studying the transitional

since modern
societies always have some
industria, which is
not

Themechanisms
societies agrar1a to the
to analyse mixed movement from
unidirectional

typology also assumes a

 Public Administration(Paper-l)

(240 analysis of the administrative

system
The model gave little emphasis to the
always tråe. administrative systems.
the
emphasized on the cnvironment of
Fused-Prismatic-Diffracted Model
typology, Riggs developed Fused
responding to the criticisms of agraria-industria developing
In 1959, the Countries.
Prismatic-Diffiracted nodel to analysc
thc administrative systems in
fused, prismaticand diffracted are hypothetical
assumptions,
ideal models of Riggs, such as developed societies respectiyely.
the pre-historic, developing and
at analyzing
Prismatic
Diffracted
Fused
Similar to Transitia Similar to Industria
Similar to Agraria Univeralism
Selectivism
Particularism
Attainment Achievement
Ascriptive values
Functionally diffused Poly-functionalism Functional specificity
fused society is gie.l
Riggs created models on the basis of structural-functional approach. A
society senar
structure, which carries out multiple functions. On the contrary, in diffracted
structures are created to carry out specific functions. And prismatic society is the one in whin.
exhibits characteristics of both fused and diffracted societies.
However, Riggs emphasized that no society can be exclusively called either fusedor diffractet
- allsocieties are generally prismatic in nature.
X S X P A X
Fused. Prismatic Diffracted
Inthe above figure, the letter 'X* is placed at three positions on the scale to suggest, where
pure'or 'ideal types' of thefused, prismatic and diffracted models might be located. If one consider
the characteristics of real societies and place them on the same scale, then traditional Siam might
be at the place where the letter 'S is located, modern Thailand at T', P'represents Philippines
and 'A' represents America. The figures represent speculative guesses; they may not be perfect in
reality.
Riggs tried to explain the various societies by using the concept Parsonian pattern of variables
1. Fused Society: Fused society is high on particularismand ascription. There is discriminator
treatment based on primordial (family, caste, race, language, region and religion) basis. For
instance, in ancient India, people were treated based on caste system
and
functionally diffused meaning a number of functions are fused into asinglelineage. It is s
structure.
2. Diffracted Society: Diffracted society rank high in terms of universalism and
orientation. Every individual in thesociety are treated equally. There are no achieveme
discriminato
based on caste, region, religion, colour, etc. The individual's identity and growth
decided by his/her performances and achievements. There is also high in society
in terms of functions. This is referred as degree of specializa
3.
functional specificity.
Prismatic Society: The prismatic society is characterized by intermediary of fused and
diffracted societies. Thus, prismatic society is reflected by selectivism
particularism and universalism and attainment, which stands that is scales betwe
achievement values. For example, in India, Rahul Gandhi and Sachinbetween ascription
and they have become more popular because of their Pilot are political ngu
performance. Nevertheless, their fam
 Chapter-7 :Comparative
to their rise
contribute
Public Administration
also in
politics. S0, one can say | 241)
of
universalismand particularism. Prismatic society is that they are somewhere in the middle
which standsin between
functional specificity and also characterizedIby poly-functionalism
diffus nor differentiated but in
between the two. functional diffuseness. In short., it is neither
Riggs in his, analysis had touched upon
But the various sub-systems
primary interest of Riggs
sub-systems.

in transitional (or
including social, cultural and political
was to understand
p r o b l e m s

and diffracted developing) countries or societies, In and his

illuminate on administrative
ofthe
tuscd models as tools to explain prismatic entire analysis, he made use
Fused
and diffracted models were sketchy and help phenomenon of developing countries.
to understand the prismatic societies.
Fused
Prismatic Diffracted
Imperial China, Siamese Thailand.
Philippines and Thailand. " Modern America.
No classification of functions and Intermediate
asingle structure. Classification of functions
Agriculture + high degree of specialization
Heavily depends on agriculture Modernization and ie. each structure has
with no industrialization and Industrialization. specific functions.
modernization. " Bazaar-Canteen Model. Modernization and
Lawof barter system and Administrative System is industrialization.
exchange-re-distributive model. referred as Sala Model. " Market mechanism -
Society strives to protect the special Sala is a Spanish word marketized society.
interest of family and certain sects. which means government Government is responsive
Society tends to be static with no office, a room, a pavilion, to the needs of all the people
developed communication system. religious conference, etc. and human rights.
" Communication and
People at power enjoys absolute
power technology are highly
developed and make the
Administrative subsystem is
referred as Chamber. society dynamic.
General consensus among
the people.
" Administrative subsystem is
'Bureau' or Office'.

Prismatic Model achieved a certain level of

differentiation -
which has has failed to
The prismatic society is the one for dealing with modern technology - butadministrative
specialization of roles that is necessary
Itegrate the roles. It shares the value-patterns iof both fused and
diffracted societies. The
Weberian. Prismatic
functionally
in structure but it is not andoverlapping,
System in prismatic societyis Weberian -heterogeneity,
formalism

sOCiCty per se has three importantcharacteristicfeatures side by side, of quite different

kinds of
presence, heterogeneity. The
simultaneous of
reflects high degree irresponsive due to
systems,Heterogeneity
refers to the society
prismatic and
and viewpoints. Andwould be inconsistent, practices.
incomplete
practices
SOCial change In a prismatic society opposite viewpoints and
parallel C0-existence of
diametrically
 Public Administration (Paper-1) A c

(242) new and

Gurgaon with high rise buildings of facilities emerging and
con

there are urban areas like ofh8

In India, rural, remote and tribal areas without the out
wih

MNCs. On the other hand, there are

health care, roads, etc. There is high premium
The
bur

drinking water, primary

amenities, such as safe and madrasa: mod
one hand and on the other there are traditional gurukulas leaders
hand and on the other ayurvedic. un
education system on
allopathic treatment on one making

medical tacilities giving politica

homeopathicand naturopathic centres.
the c0-cxistence of contrasting systems, there are push and pulls in differe. reasons
Because of couldn
directions making it difficult to draw gencralization.
between prescribed and effectivel.
Formalism refers to the extent to which discrepancies exist
ofadma

effective power, laws and actualpractices

practiced norms (prescriptive and descriptive, formal and B a z a a

stated objectives and real performances, etc.). The greater the discrepancies greater is the formalism In
high degree of realism in comparison
in the system. The fused and diffracted societies have relatively society like India, the prohibition
Supply

to prismatic society which has high degree of formalism. Inthepri_matic

Constitutionof India, the Chief Minister
methoc

laws are more violated than being observed. According to the eco
legislative assembly but
of an Indian state is selected by the members of the majority party in state
of the Chief Minister.
standa

in reality, the central party leaders play decisive role in the selection distrib

The degree of co-existence of both formally differentiated structures of diffracted society and R
undifferentiated structure ofa fused society is referred as overlapping. Ahigh degree of overlapping
is manifested in several noticeable dimensions in various fields of prismatic society. The overlapping the ma

in prismatic society is conceptualized as nepotism, poly-communalism, existence of clects, pol

societr

and fir
normativism and lack of consensus and separation of authority from control.
Fused society usually has a number of small and unified groups. Each group has their own
socio-economic and political set of values. But there is no single set of values, which unite all the favour
small groups. This may be because of limited and social mobility. the bu
STuct
In diffracted society, there is one single set of valueas there are interactions between various
social groups. The employees develop sense of loyalty and commitment towards the government. and pa
In prismaticsociety, the social groups are inter-linked and connected through various forms of
higher
TOup
interactions and communications. But unlike diffracted society, the individuals in each group ane a serv
still more loyal to their own community than to the government. The society has not reached at a man v
stage where there is only one set of values. As a result, there are conflicts among different groups deterio
and lack of consensus. Adominant group may take advantage of the situation. In sum, poly
communalism in prismatic society creates many administrative problems. Proble
Poly communalism brings about poly normativism. Each group develops their own values anu
principles. The norms may be influenced by external factors (exogenetic) and internal facO condit
(endogenetic). The individuals are influenced by their own community instead of being influenced by or the
the state or government. When there are different norms and values in a society, there is lack of
conseis
the pro
In prismaticsociety, there is favouritism in appointments to various administrative posit \esser
and in performing various administrative functions. This is referred as nepotism.
Whenever thel
devel
clash of internal and external influences, the internal influence
scores over the external.
Clect is atypical prismatic group which makes use of modern associational methods of Tesulte
organization but retains diffuse and particularistic goals of transitional type. It combines the features
of'sects' of fused society and 'club' ofthe End
to particular community and serves the diffracted society. It represents a group ofpeople belonging
interests of their respective clects members ony s. The
means in prismatic society, there is groupism based on primordial identities to maximize bene
 ies af Chapter-7:Comparative Public Adtinistration
According to Riggs, the ( 243
pre concentrated administrative system
authority structure and highly of prismatic society consists ofhighly centralized
"asa,m and
out withthe
The
term
bureaucrats
'unbalanced polity' to explain thelocalized and dispersed control system. He came
in
politico-administrative system in prismatic society.
prismaticsociety dominate the
leaders' powers. As a result, the political administrative systems despite the political
constitutional
n dife making processes in a prismatic society sala officials play more
than the dominant role in decision-
political system is not capable enough to control theofficials in a diffracted society. This is because the
reasons.
Most of the
administrative system because of the historical
developing countries were colonies
ef\prfaecicikxae
could not mature but
administrative
of administrative and political systems.
system could
of western powers. The
mature. Thus, there is unbalance political
This ultimately led to separation of in
system
the strengths
formali
omparis
Bazaar Canteen Mode!
In a diffracted soCiety, the
authority from control.
orohibt nnly and demand and other economic economic system operates depending on the
market factors of
MInise methods. On contrary, the arena factors, considerations. The economic system follows standard1zed
such as religion, social and familial
embl
er.
y be the economic transaction in a fused considerations
society. The question of price scarcely arises. determine
standardization. The market follows barter system i.e. There is no
distributive economy governs the economic exchange of goods and services. The re
sub-system.
Riggs termed the economic sub-system of prismatic
the market factors of diffracted society and arena factors society as Bazaar Canteen model. Both
cts, Doh society. The economic and non-economic of fused society play side-by-side in prismatic
factors interact and
and finally reduce a state to price indeterminacy. This gives influence the economic structures
place to bargaining and bribes.
In adiffracted society, everyone gets the services on equal basis
without discrimination and
favouritism. But in a prismatic society, the price of goods and services
the buyer and seller. The price varies from place to place, time to time, depend on the relation between
person to
structure in a prismaticsociety behaves like subsidized canteen to the membersperson. The economic
of privileged groups
and politically influential persons. Conversely, it behaves like a tributary canteen where they charge
tigher prices tothe members of less privileged, politically non-influential or members of'outside
[Link] me the man, I willshow you the price. For instance, say according to rules and regulations,
aService is provided in 15 days time but a poor man willget the serVice in say 30days and a rich
tian willget the samne service in say 5 days. The price indeterminacy in a prismatic society further
erorates the economic conditions, encourages black marketing, hoarding, adulteration, etc.
Problem of Change in Prismatic Society
Ihe pace of development in any society depends mainly on the availability of favourable
Conditions for change in the system. The Western societies witnessed relatively longer time span
for their
development and were able to adjust their behaviour gradually to the desired patterns. In
he process of
the the
change,
lesser degree than Westernerstransitional
contemporary experiencedand
formalism,
developingheterogeneity and isoverlapping
countries. This notthe casewithof
developing untries (prismatic society).
The pressure for change originated from two internal and external sources. If the change is
Tesulted from equal pressures of endogenous and exogenous forces, thennit is referred as equigenetic.

TheEndogenous (Internal)
Exogenous (External)
pressure is primarily from internal The pressure is primarily from external source
normally through administrative reforms) (say technical assistance programmes)
 Public Administration (Paper-I)
244|
society experiences both endogenous and exogenous
pressures. Riggs explained
The prismatic
that more is exogenetic force more is the formalism and heterogeneity; more is endogenetic force
less is formalism and heterogeneity. Thus, greater formalism, heterogeneity and overlapping wil
endo-prismatic characters of change.
have greater state of exo-prismatic and lesser
The developing (prismatic societies) countries in their bid to absorb the externally induced
change (exogeneticchange) in theshortest possibletime face the possibilities of higher formalis
heterogeneity and severity of revolutionary
tensions.
Riggs on Development
Riggs defined development as a process of increasing autonomy (discretion) of social systen
made possible by rising level of diffraction. Discretion, according to Riggs, is the ability to choose
among alternatives and diffraction means the degree of differentiation.
Initially, Riggs explained the concept of development based on differentiation but the
explanation had certain limitations. It was one dimensional rather unidirectional. The society had
tomove from fused to prismaticand then to diffracted. The initial definition was bringing absolutism
So, in his later publication PrismaticSociety Revisited in 1975 introduced another dimension called
integration. Diffraction was then referred as degree of differentiation and integration in a social
system. This explanation resolved a number of dilemmas.
Diffraction =Differentiation and Integration
Differentiation means existence of a situation in which every function has a corresponding
specialized structure for its performance. And integration means a mechanism to tie together, to
link up, to mesh and to coordinate the various kinds of specialized roles. With the introduction of
idea of integration, the Riggsian theory gained the much needed flexibilities.
Aprismatic society is characterized by a high degree of differentiation and poor integration.
And a diffracted society has both high degree of differentiation and integration. 0C1

Riggs observed that a, b, c, d, and e are points

where degree of differentiation is more than the
degree of integration, whereas m, n, o, p,qand r are
points where there is balance between the degree of
LoInetgvrfailon Diffractedconditions
differentiation and integration.
Riggs observed that it is much easier to train
PrismaticConditions
people to perform specialized roles of modern
government than it is to integrate these roles to link
them up together. In essence,differentiation is much
easier than the integration. m

The level of differentiation in any society

depends upon the technological and non Fusion Level of Differentiation
technological factors. More the development of technology higher is the level of differentiation.
The integration depends on two important variables - penetration and participation. Penetration s
the ability of a government to make decision and carry out through the length and
country. Itis the system's ability to reach out the nook and corner of the society. breadth of ne
facilities for education should reach nook and corner of the country. For instance, tuo
of law and the willingness to help carry out the laws and Participation is the receptivi
is policies, formulated by the governimen.
dependent on two elements -willingness of people to participate and ability of
thepeople to partic1pa
 Chapter-7 :Comparative Public
Technical
Administration 245

Non-technical Differentiation

al y'ind Willingness

to participate

Participation - Difraction-º Development

Ability to
participate

Ocal sy Administrative
> Integration
Structurc
Administrative
development Penetration
tion bu Administrative

Behaviour

gabsou
n in a
so
The prismatic and diffiracted societies are further subdivided
ato finer categories on the basis of degree of integration.
Prismatic society has three sub-categories -eo prismatic, ortho
Integraion DiffractedSocieties
risnatic and neo prismatic. Similarly, diffracted society has
three sub, categories - eo diffracted, ortho difracted and neo

errespond
diffracted.
There are no eo, ortho and neo fused societies as they do
togethe not exhibit any characters of differentiation. The prefixes eo,
inIteagdrqiuonte
Differentiation

Toduction ortho and neo suggest thedegree of differentiation.

Riggs puts it, "Traditional, agricultural and folk societies
modern industrial
Prismatic Societies
integraia (Agraria) approximate the fused model, and
sOcieties (Industria) approach the refracted model. The former
is 'functionally diffuse', the latter functionally specific'. model, so-called because of the prism
Intermediate between these polar extremes is the prismatic
which fused light passes to become refracted." The transitional society is continually in
through This also
As it moves along, it differentiates in terms of specific structures.
the trends of change.
mechanisms to hold the parts together. Integration becomes very important
ditions fecessitates integrating
2S the developing society contains within it both old and new structures. Thus, nuclear
medicine

tribal medicine will be found to exist together in such societies.

and the transitional
'prismatic society' as a midpoint or intermediate form of
Kiggs conceptualised the are
types, combining both fused and refracted features that
OCety between thbe two ideal simultaneous presence, side by side, of quite difterent
kinds
aCterised by 'heterogeneity' (the formalism' (the extent to which discrepancy exists between
impressions
systems, practices and viewpoints:betweenthe formal and eftective power, betweenadministrative
the prescriptive andthe descriptive, extent to which what is described as
and actual practices), and 'overlapping' (the The prismatic society has its
erentiati
ion
administrative criteria).
behaviour is actually determined by non-
the Spanish word "Sala" for it, which
netration has borrowed
appropriate administrative system. Riggs (refracted) oftice traits.
and
Combines both the pure (fused) chamber rationality and non-administrative considerations are
e a d t ho f t h

nStance
receptil In the sala model, both administrative "Enables us to cope with many problems of
model is possible,
prismatic-sala
sciences... whereas, it
erniment Tecognised, To quote Riggs, the
the net of established social
articjpa transitional societies that slipthrough
 Public Administration(Paper-)
|246 |
meaningfulness of 'public administration' as a separate institutio
with some
for example, to speak discipline highly misleading to
in the American setting, it becomes take such
sphere and academic bit from his
Indonesia and Malagasy."
Riggs moved awaya original
an approach in Iran, Society Revisited
his later publication entitled Prismatic
(1975).
about the prismatic society in reformulation exercise in this Unit. It is instructive to note thW.a
administration and society
not, however, the been ably woven together in a theoretical framework by Fred
go into have
need
societjes.
context of the Third World transitional
Riggs, particularly in the
Critical Appraisal of Fred W. Riggs can't be any study of Comparative Public
there Administration
It is widely accepted fact thatwithout the reference to views of Riggs. But like any other:theorist;
Administration
and Development
criticism.
Riggswas subjected severe
new words. It is Ok to coin new words for bbetter explanations,
Fred W. Riggs coined a number of
derived most of the new words from science and they have created more confusin
However, Riggs times.
Sison who is very critical Riggs models observed that one has to read three
than clarity.
second to understand his concepts and
understand Riggs writings. First to understand his language,
to learn.
third to know whether there is anything really needed
the utility of theprismatic
The utility of the Riggs model was questioned. Hahn Behn Lee doubts
change in development
and sala models. These models are not helpful to know the process of social
equilibrium but not
These models are equilibrium models which facilitate for preserving the
introducing any change in the system. Thus, these models are useful
only when the objective is not
of change in thesystem rather maintenance of thesystenm.
identification.
Riggs models are more qualitative thanquantitative. There are no scales for
are
Daya Krishnaobserved that fused and diffracted societies are imaginary and all the societies
measurement.
classified as prismatic at various levels of low, middle and high but there is no scale for
Therefore, the empirical validity of Riggs model is highly questionable.
Riggs prismatic model serves no purpose to find out the stages of development. According to
Daya Krishna, when change is inevitable in society, Riggs diffracted model is impracticable and
unwarranted. Diffracted society represents the equilibrium state and stands for stability and
preservation of the system. To Krishna, diffracted society is not desirable.
Riggs considereddifferentiation and integration as two important ingredients of development.
But it is difficult task to identify the desirable level of differentiation and integration required 0r
development. He preferred societies with low but equitable level for differentiation and integration.
But Daya Krishna was of the opinion that low and equitable level of differentiation and integratiot
stands as an obstacle to development. It should be high level of differentiation and low level o
integration. Further, Daya Krishna iterated that Riggs view of integration as the result of penetratio
and participation can't be relevant in all situations. There is people's participation even in dictato
countries andmore participation can't be considered as important variable ofintegration. Moreo te
Daya Krishnabelieved that Riggs failed to recognize the role of outside or external forces in
process of development.
technological
Riggs alsofailedtotake into considerationthe social aspects besides scientific andi
reasons for differentiation. His belief that social equilibrium will be disturbed only because
scientific and technological reasons is far from convincing.
 Chapter-7 :Comparative Public
R. C.
Tilman
criticized Riggs for adopting a Administration (247)
explaining the social systems. wrong
It is the primary analytical tool borrowed from physical
sciences in
analytical approach.
Administration is also aresponsibility of the researcher to select
s u i t a b l e

amost

society
different ways at different times but
in tool
for social science and it influences
the
prismatic model mainly
Riggs completely neglected this aspect.
The describes developing societies but
administration in the society. The main failedto explain the 'place' to
reason for failure was the failure
dynamics of the society.
In a prismatic society, the of Riggs to analyse the
internal
distinctive
one but also
independent variable by itself. There character of each social structure is a
is wide disparity and distinction in the
[Link], economic, political and
relation administrative system of a society. Riggs had failed to
carefully recognize these distinctions.
Diggsdid not work elaborately in the relationship between the diffracted and fused
characters
prismatic society. Due to this lacuna, the conclusion that 'formalism' leads to concentration of
in a
power inthe hands of bureaucracy which, in turn, leads to inefficiency in administration is arrived
in haste and without any proper empirical evidence. Riggs also believed that overlapping exists
only in prismatic society. According toArora, overlapping exists equally in diffracted society as in
anrismatic society but the reasons may be diferent. Besides, Riggs highlighted the negative impacts
of overlapping but didnot examine the positive aspects which may provide healthy competition
among various administrative sub-systems and increase the efficiency in administration.
The very concept of prismatic model has a negative character. It all looks
as though the
and [Link]
conditions of developing countries were analysed through the western values
developing countries while taking America
Moore observed that Riggs examined the conditions in
to the positive character of prismatic society as
as astandard society. Riggs did not give importance projected formalism as a negative aspect
did to the negative characters. For instance, he
much as he
bad impacts but in countries like India, if there is proper leadership, then
and highlighted all its out the works in time. Thus, to conclude that
role in carrying
Tormalism may play a very positive viewpoint.
in most or all circumstancesrepresents anon-ecological
Tormalism is dysfunctional
to give enough attention to the operation of internal forces,
failed
Valson observed that Riggs
the functioning of any systems.
Wnlch are important in
of Comparative Public Administration and
enlightened the studies content andanalysis.
All said, Riggs had also touched wider horizons bothin
approach and models help in
Development dynamics. His ecologicaladministrative system. His approach
It took an integrated approach of countries. Sala model provided. an opportunity
processin developing countries. It had huge
heuristic
understanding the administrative system in developing
to analyse and understand the administrative empiricalland ecological approaches. Although
his
studies on understandingthe realities.
Impact - facilitate to conduct further practice, they helpin
difficult to find
outin sophisticated tools for describing
administrative models are
In other words, his approach and models may be
considered as more

and situations. insight into some of

the underlying
diagnosing administrative

limitations,
deepen the
Riggs modelssocieties.
In spite of many in traditional
problems of Public Administration