Automotive Engines Module 5 - Fuels And Lubricants

Module 5 - Fuels and Lubricants

Fuels:
Fuel is any material when burnt will produce heat energy. Various fuels commonly used are as follows:

1. Solid Fuels: Coal is the most important solid fuel; there are other types of solid fuels, such as: nuclear fuels,
solid wastes (wood, sugar-cane). Coal is divided into groups according to their chemical and physical
properties. An accurate chemical analysis for the fuel by mass is called the "ultimate analysis", which gives the
percentage of the important elements present in the fuel. Another approximate analysis of fuel called the
"proximate analysis" gives the percentage of moisture, volatile matter, and combustible solid (fixed carbon) and
ash.

2. Liquid Fuels: Liquid fuels are widely used for I.C.E. Practically all liquid fuels have two basic combustible
elements; carbon and hydrogen, present separately or in a combination called hydrocarbons. Petroleum and its
Derivatives are easy to handle, store, and burn and have nearly constant heating values. They are usually a
mixture of hydrocarbons that may be represented by the molecular formula of the form CnHm, where m is a
function of n that depends upon the family of the hydrocarbon.

3. Gaseous Fuels: Gaseous fuels are may be either natural or manufactured; natural gas: is a mixture of
components, consisting mainly of methane (60-98%) with small amount of other hydrocarbons. In addition it
consists; N2, CO2, H2 and traces of other gases. Its sulfur content ranges from very little (sweet) to larger
amounts (sour). It is classified as associated or unassociated depending on whether it is associated with oil or
not. It is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) or as liquid (LNG) at pressure ranging between 70 to 210 kPa.

Petroleum
 Petroleum is a dark viscous oily liquid knows as rock oil (In greek, petra – rock, oleum – oil). It is formed
from the bacterial decomposition of the remain animals and plants which got buried under the sea millions
of years ago.
 When these organisms died, they sank to the bottom and got covered by sand and clay. Over a period of
millions of years these remains got converted into hydrocarbons by heat, pressure and catalytic action.
 Natural gas is found above the petroleum oil trapped under rocks. The crude petroleum is obtained by
drilling hole into the earth’s crust and sinking pipes into it.
 When the pipe reaches the oil deposit, natural gas comes out with a great pressure. After the pressure has
subsided, the crude oil is pumped out of the oil well.

Refining process (Fractional distillation)

 Before petroleum can be used for different purposes, it must be separated into various components; it must
be separated into various components. The process of separating petroleum into useful fractions and
removal of undesirable impurities is called refining.
 The refining of petroleum is carried by the process of fractional distillation and is done in big refineries. The
first step is neutralization of crude oil by washing with acidic or basic solutions needed.
 Then oil is heated in a furnace to about 675K and the vapour thus obtained are introduced into a
fractionating tower. The tower is divided into a number of compartments by means of trays having holes.

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 The holes are covered with bubble caps which allow the lighter more volatile components to pass up the
column while the heavier, less volatile compounds condense and flow into trays below.
 The crude oil is fed at the base at about 675K, at this temperature all the components except asphalt
vapourise. As the mixture of hot vapour rises in the column it cools.
 Therefore, the component with the highest boiling point liquefies first and is collected. Then a little, higher
in the column, the component having slightly lower boiling point liquefies and so on.
 The residual gases which do not condense, escape from the upper part of the tower.

Structure of petroleum
Basically, petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms;
it may also contain small quantities of sulphur, oxygen and nitrogen.

The constituents of petroleum are:

 Paraffins – (CnH2n+2) straight chain molecular structure, name of Hydro Carbon end with prefix ane.
Examples – methane (CH4 ), butane (C4H10 ) etc.

methane (CH4 ) , butane (C4H10)

 Olefins – (CnH2n) compound with one or more double bonded carbon atom in straight chain, name of
Hydro Carbon end with prefix ene. Ex – hexene (C6H12 ) etc.

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 Automotive Engines Module 5 - Fuels And Lubricants

 Napthenes – (CnH2n) these are ring structured compounds, name of Hydro Carbon end with prefix ane.
Examples – cyclobutane (C4H8 ).

 Aromatics (CnH2n-6) – ring type structure with alternative double bond, name of Hydro Carbon end with
prefix ene. Examples – benzene (C6H6 ) etc.

Requirements of gasoline
1. It should readily mix with air and it should easily vaporize.
2. It must be knock resistant.
3. It should not preignite easily.
4. Should not tend to decrease the volumetric efficiency of engine.
5. Should be easy to handle.
6. It must be cheap and should be available everywhere.
7. Must burn clean and produce no corrosion.
8. Must have high calorific value.
9. Should not form gum and varnish.
Fuel Ratings
Octane Number
The octane number of a fuel defined as percentage of Iso-octane in the primary reference fuel that gives
same knock intensity. It describes how well it will or will not self ignite. The primary reference fuels are Iso-
octane (C8H18) and normal heptane (C7H16). Iso-octane chemically being a very good antiknock fuel, is
arbitrarily assigned a rating of ‘100’ octane number. Normal heptane has very poor antiknock qualities and is
given a rating of ‘0’ octane number.
The higher the octane number of the fuel the less likely it will self-ignite. In SI engines self-ignition will
occur when the fuel ignites before the use of the spark due to high temperatures. When self-ignition occurs in SI
engines pressure pulses are generated. This high pressure causes damage to the engine. This activity of self-
ignition is called knock. Engines with low compression ratios can use low octane fuels since the temperatures
and pressures are lower. High compression engines must use high octane fuel to avoid self-ignition and knock.
The addition of certain compounds (e.g. tetraethyl lead) to Iso-octane produces fuels of greater antiknock
quality.
Test procedure for finding octane number (ON) of fuel:
To find ON of a fuel, the following test procedure is used
 The test engine is run at specified conditions using the fuel being tested. (The specified fixed conditions
to give maximum knock response are: Air-inlet temperature, coolant temperature, engine speed, ignition
advance setting, mixture strength etc.)
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 Compression ratio is adjusted until a standard level of knock is experienced (using knock detector).
 The test fuel is then replaced with a mixture of the two standard fuels. The intake system of the engine is
designed such that the blend of the two standard fuels can be varied to any percent from all iso-octane to
all n – heptane.
 The blend of fuels is varied until the same knock characteristics are observed as with the test fuel.
 The percent of iso-octane in the fuel blend is the ON given to the test fuel. For instance, a fuel that has
the same knock characteristics as a blend of 85% iso-octane and 15% n-heptane would have an ON of
85.

Cetane Number
The cetane number of a fuel is defined as percentage of normal cetane in the mixture of normal cetane
(C16H34) and alpha methyl naphthalene (C11H10), which gives same knock intensity. In this, normal cetane
(C16H34) and alpha methyl naphthalene (C11H10) are called as primary reference fuels. Cetane (C16H34) is
arbitrarily assigned a rating of ‘100’ cetane number. Alpha methyl naphthalene (C11H10) has very poor
antiknock qualities and is given a rating of ‘0’ cetane number. Generally the cetane number rating of a diesel
fuel is measures of its ability to auto ignite quickly when it is injected into the compressed and heated air in the
engine. The higher the cetane number of the fuel lesser is the possibility of diesel knock.
Cetane number is the most important single fuel property which affects the exhaust emissions, noise and
startability of a diesel engine. In general, lower the cetane number, higher are the hydrocarbon emissions and
noise levels. Low cetane fuels increase ignition delay so that start of the combustion is nearer to top dead centre.
Test procedure for finding cetane number (CN) of fuel:
To find CN of a fuel, the following test procedure is used
 The test engine is run at specified conditions using the fuel being tested. (The specified fixed conditions
are, Inlet temperature = 65.5˚C, Jacket temperature = 100˚C, Speed = 900 r.p.m., Injection timing = 13˚
BTDC.)
 Compression ratio is adjusted until combustion commences at TDC thereby producing 13˚ delay period).
 The test fuel is then replaced with a mixture of the two standard fuels. The intake system of the engine is
designed such that the blend of the two standard fuels can be varied to any percent from all normal
cetane to all alpha methyl naphthalene.
 The blend of fuels is varied until the delay period is observed as with the test fuel.
 Thus a commercial 40 cetane fuel will have a ignition delay performance equivalent to that of a blend of
40% cetane and 60% alpha methyl naphthalene by volume.

LUBRICATION
Lubrication is an art of admitting a lubricant between two surfaces that are in contact and in relative motion.
Purposes or Necessity or Functions of Lubrication
1. To reduce friction between the parts having relative motion and thus reducing energy loss.
2. To reduce wear of the moving part.
3. To cool the surfaces by carrying away heat generated due to friction.
4. To seal a space adjoining the surfaces.
5. To absorb shocks between bearings and other parts and consequently reduce noise.
6. To remove dirt and clean the surfaces by washing away carbon and metal particles caused by wear.

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Types of Lubrication system

1) Mist Lubrication system
2) Dry Lubrication system
3) Wet sump systems
 Splash Lubrication system
 Pressure feed Lubrication system
Mist Lubrication system
This system is used for 2 stroke engines. Most of these engines are crankcharged i.e. they employ
crankcase compression and thus are not suitable for crankcase lubrication.
Such engines are lubricated by adding 2 to 3 percent
lubricating oil in the fuel tank. The oil and the fuel
mixture is inducted through the carburettor. The
gasoline is vaporized and oil, in its form of mist (small
drop), goes via crankcase into the cylinder. The oil
which impinges on crankcase walls lubricates the main
and connecting rod bearings and rest of the oil which
passes on to the cylinder during charging and
scavenging periods lubricates the piston, piston rings
and the cylinder.
The composition of fuels and lubricants used influence
the exhaust smoke, internal corrosion, bearing life; ring
and cylinder bore wear, exhaust and combustion
chamber deposits. One of the most difficult problem is
spark plug fouling. A fuel/oil ratio of 40 to 50 is
optimum. Higher ratios increase the wear and lower
ratios result in spark plug fouling.
Advantages
1) Simple in operation
2) Low cost because no oil pump, filter, etc.
Disadvantages
1) Burning of lubricating oil lead to heavy exhaust emissions and formation of heavy deposits on piston crown
and exhaust port.
2) Since the oil comes in close contact with acidic vapors get contaminated and result in the corrosion of
bearing surface.
3) Due to high exhaust temperature and less efficient scavenging the crankcase oil is diluted.
4) Since there is no control over the lubricating oil, once introduced with fuel, most of the two stroke engines
are over oiled most of the time.
5) During closed throttle operation (vehicle moving down in hill) the engine will suffer from insufficient
lubrication.
Dry Lubrication system
In this, the supply of oil is carried in an external tank.

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 An oil pump draws oil from the supply tank and circulates it under pressure to the various bearings of the
engine.
 Oil dripping from the cylinders bearings
into the sump is removed by a scavenging
pump which in turn the oil is passed
through a filter and is fed back to the
supply tank.
 Thus, oil is prevented from accumulating
in the base of the engine.
 The capacity of the scavenging pump is
greater than the oil pump.
 In this system filter with a bypass valve is
placed in between the scavenge pump and
the supply tank. If the filter is clogged, the
pressure relief valve opens permitting oil
to bypass the filter and reaches the supply
tank.
 A separate oil cooler with either water or air as the cooling medium, is usually provided in the dry pump
system to remove heat from the oil.
Wet sump systems
A. Splash Lubrication system
 This type of system is used in light duty engines. A schematic layout of system is shown in figure.
 The lubricating oil is charged into in the bottom of the engine crankcase and maintained at a predetermined
level.
 The oil is drawn by a pump and delivered
through a distributing pipe extending the
length of the crankcase into splash troughs
under the big end of all the connecting
rods. Oil in the troughs is kept at a
constant level.
 A splasher or dipper is provided under
each connecting rod cap which dips into
the oil in the trough at every revolution of
the crankshaft and oil is splashed all over
the interior of the crankcase into the
pistons and onto the exposed portions of
the cylinder walls.
 A hole is drilled through the connecting
rod cap through which oil will pass to the
bearing surface.
 Oil pockets are also provided to catch the splashing oil over all the main bearings and also over the camshaft
bearings.
 The oil dipping from the cylinder is collected in the sump where it is cooled by the air flowing around. The
cooled oil is then recirculated.

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B. Pressure feed Lubrication system

 In this oil is drawn in from the sump and forced to all the main bearings of the crankshaft through
distrubuting channels.

 The basic components of wet sump lubrication syatems are i) Pump ii) strainer iii) Pressure regulater iv)
Filter v) Breather.
 Oil is drawn from the sump by a gear or rotor type of oil pump through an oil strainer.
 The strainer is a fine mesh screen which prevents foreign particles from entering the oil circulating systems.
 A pressure relief valve is provided which auomatically keeps the delivery pressure constant.
 An oil hole is drilled in the crankshaft from the centre of each crankpin to the centre of an adjacent main
journal through whch oil can pass from the main bearings to the crankpin bearing.
 From the crankpin it reaches piston pin bearing through a hole drilled in the connecting rod.
 The cylinder walls, tappet rollers, piston and piston rings are lubricated by oil spray from around the piston
pins and the main and connecting rod bearings.
 Most of the oil from the pump goes directly to the engine bearings and a portion of oil passes through
cartridge filter which removes the solid particles from the oil.
 This reduces the amount of contamination from carbon dust and other impurities present in the oil.
 Since all the oil coming from the pump does not pass directly through the filter, this system is called by-pass
filtering system.
 The advantage of this system is that a clogged filter will not restrict the fllow of oil to the engine.
Additives
Detergents (to control deposits like gums), Dispersants (to control cold sudge and varnish), Anti wear additives
(to reduce wear), Rust inhibitors (to reduce rust), viscosity index improver (to withstand high temperature), pour
point additives (to reduce pour piont), Anti foam agents (to reducee oil foam), Anti oxidants (to reducee oil
oxidation)
Properties of lubricants
1. Viscosity : viscosity of an oil is measure of its resistance to flow and measured by viscometer. A more
viscous oil can carry a greater load, but it will offer greater friction to sliding movement. Viscosity varies
with temperature and hence high temperature surface should be lubricated with high viscosity oil.
2. Flash point : it is defined as the temperature at which the lubricating oil will flash when small flame is
passed across its surface. The flash point of the oil should be sufficiently high so as to avoid flashing of oil
vapours at common temperature.

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3. Fire point : it is the lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil burns continuously. The fire point also
must be high, so that oil does not burn in service.
4. Cloud point : it is the temperature at which the oil changes from liquid state to a plastic or solid state. The
cloud point temperature should be low.
5. Pour point : it is lowest temperature at which the lubricating oil will pour. This property must be
considered because of its effect on starting an engine in cold weather.
6. Oiliness : this is property which enables oil to spread over and adhere to the surface of the bearing.
7. Corrosion : a lubricant should not corrode the working parts and it must retain its properties even in the
presence of foreign matter and additives.
8. Emulsification : a lubricating oil, when mixed with water is emulsified and loses its lubricating property.
9. Physical stability : a lubricating oil must be stable physically at the lowest and highest temperatures
between which the oil is to be used.
10. Chemical stability : a lubricating oil should also be stable chemically. There should not be any tendency for
oxide formation.
11. Neutralisation number : it is a measure of acidic or alkaline contents of oil. New oil has low neutralisation
number, which is the quantity of acid solution required to make the oil neutral.
12. Adhesiveness : it is the property of a lubricating oil due to which the oil particles stick with the metal
surfaces.
13. Specific gravity : it is measure of density of oil. It is an indication regarding the grade of lubricant by
comparing one lubricant with other.
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) standards for fuels and lubricants
IS No. Title
IS 1448: Part Methods of test for petroleum and its products– Part 1/Section1 Determination of
1/Section1: 2002 acid number of petroleum products by Potentiometric Titration (Second revision)
IS 1448 (Part 2):2007/ Methods of test for petroleum and its products: Part 2 Petroleum products and
ISO 6619:1988 lubricants — Neutralization Number — Potentiometric titration method.
IS 1448: Part Methods of test for petroleum and its products Part 10: Cloud point and pour point.
10::1970
IS 1448: Part 15: Methods of Test for Petroleum and Its Products – Part 15: Petroleum Products –
2004 Corrosiveness to Copper – Copper Strip Test.
IS 1448 : Part 16 : Methods of test for petroleum and its products: Part 16 Density Relative Density
1990 of Crude Petroleum and Liquid Petroleum Products by Hydrometer Method
1448 (Part 25): 1976 Methods of Test for Petroleum and its Products – Part 25 Determination of
kinematic and dynamic viscosity (first revision)
1448 (Part 56): 1980 Methods of Test for Petroleum and its Products – Part 56 Viscosity Index by
Calculation (Second Revision)
1448 (Part 67): 1982 foaming characteristics of lubricating oils
1448 (Part 69): 1969 Methods of test for petroleum and its products: Par t 69 Flash and fire point by
Cleveland (open) cup
1448 (Part 91): 1979 Methods of test for petroleum and its products: Par t 91 Emulsion characteristics of
petroleum oils and synthetic fluids
1448 (Part 96) : 1980 Methods of Test for Petroleum and its Products - Part 96 : Rust-preventing
Characteristics of Steam-turbine Oil in the Presence of Water

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Hydrodynamic Lubrication or Thick Film Lubrication

Hydrodynamic lubrication is said to exist when the moving surfaces are separated by the pressure of a
continuous unbroken film or layer of lubrication. In this type of lubrication, the load is taken completely by the
oil film.
Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on the relative speed between the surfaces, oil viscosity, load, and clearance
between the moving or sliding surfaces.
In hydrodynamic lubrication the lube oil film thickness is greater than outlet,
pressure at the inlet increases quickly, remains fairly steady having a
maximum value a little to the outside of the bearing center line, and then
decreases quickly to zero at the outlet.
Application of hydrodynamic lubrication
 Delicate instruments.
 Light machines like watches, clocks, guns, sewing machines.
 Scientific instruments.
 Large plain bearings like pedestal bearings, main bearing of diesel engines.

Elasto Hydrodynamic Lubrication

Elasto Hydrodynamic lubrication is essentially a form of hydrodynamic lubrication in which the metal surfaces
are separated by a complete film of oil, but instead of being self-generated, the separating pressure is supplied
by an external oil pump. Elasto Hydrodynamic lubrication depends on the inlet pressure of lube oil and
clearance between the metal surfaces, whereas in hydrodynamic lubrication it depends on the relative speed
between the surfaces, oil viscosity, load on the surfaces, and clearance between the moving surfaces.
Example: the cross head pin bearing or gudgeon pin bearing in two stroke engines employs this hydrostatic
lubrication mechanism. In the cross head bearing, the load is very high and the motion is not continuous as the
bearing oscillation is fairly short. Thus hydrodynamic lubrication cannot be achieved. Under such conditions,
hydrostatic lubrication offers the advantage. The oil is supplied under pressure at the bottom of bearing. The
lube oil pump pressure is related to the load, bearing clearance, and thickness of the oil film required, but is
usually in the order of 35-140 kg/cm2 .

Boundary Lubrication or Thin Film Lubrication

Boundary lubrication exists when the operating condition are
such that it is not possible to establish a full fluid condition,
particularly at low relative speeds between the moving or
sliding surfaces.
The oil film thickness may be reduced to such a degree that
metal to metal contact occurs between the moving surfaces.
The oil film thickness is so small that oiliness becomes
predominant for boundary lubrication.
Boundary lubrication happens when
 A shaft starts moving from rest.
 The speed is very low.

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 The load is very high.

 Viscosity of the lubricant is too low.
 Guide and guide shoe in two stroke engine.
 Lubrication of the journal bearing in diesel engines (mainly during starting and stopping of engine).
 Piston rings and when cylinder liner is at TDC and BDC position when the piston direction changes and if
the relative speed is very slow.

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