Basic Structures: Sets,

Functions, Sequences, Sums,

and Matrices
Chapter 2

With Question/Answer Animations

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter Summary
⚫ Sets
⚫ The Language of Sets
⚫ Set Operations
⚫ Set Identities
⚫ Functions
⚫ Types of Functions
⚫ Operations on Functions
⚫ Computability
⚫ Sequences and Summations
⚫ Types of Sequences
⚫ Summation Formulae
⚫ Set Cardinality
⚫ Countable Sets
⚫ Matrices
⚫ Matrix Arithmetic
 Sets
Section 2.1
Section Summary
⚫ Definition of sets
⚫ Describing Sets
⚫ Roster Method
⚫ Set-Builder Notation
⚫ Some Important Sets in Mathematics
⚫ Empty Set and Universal Set
⚫ Subsets and Set Equality
⚫ Cardinality of Sets
⚫ Tuples
⚫ Cartesian Product
Introduction
⚫ Sets are one of the basic building blocks for the types of
objects considered in discrete mathematics.
⚫ Important for counting.
⚫ Programming languages have set operations.
⚫ Set theory is an important branch of mathematics.
⚫ Many different systems of axioms have been used to
develop set theory.
⚫ Here we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for
set theory. Instead, we will use what is called naïve set
theory.
Sets
⚫ A set is an unordered collection of objects.
⚫ the students in this class
⚫ the chairs in this room
⚫ The objects in a set are called the elements, or members of
the set. A set is said to contain its elements.
⚫ The notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of the
set A.
⚫ If a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A
Describing a Set: Roster Method
⚫ S = {a,b,c,d}
⚫ Order not important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
⚫ Each distinct object is either a member or not; listing more
than once does not change the set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
⚫ Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing
all of the members when the pattern is clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }
Roster Method
⚫ Set of all vowels in the English alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
⚫ Set of all odd positive integers less than 10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
⚫ Set of all positive integers less than 100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
⚫ Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -3,-2,-1}
Some Important Sets
N = natural numbers = {0,1,2,3….}
Z = integers = {…,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺ = positive integers = {1,2,3,…..}
R = set of real numbers
R+ = set of positive real numbers
C = set of complex numbers.
Q = set of rational numbers
Set-Builder Notation
⚫ Specify the property or properties that all members must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
⚫ A predicate may be used:
S = {x | P(x)}
⚫ Example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
⚫ Positive rational numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
Interval Notation
[a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a,b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}
(a,b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}
(a,b) = {x | a < x < b}

closed interval [a,b]

open interval (a,b)
Universal Set and Empty Set
⚫ The universal set U is the set containing everything
currently under consideration.
⚫ Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
⚫ Sometimes explicitly stated.
⚫ Contents depend on the context. U

⚫ The empty set is the set with no V aei

elements. Symbolized ∅, but ou

{} also used.
John Venn (1834-1923)
Cambridge, UK
Russell’s Paradox
⚫ Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the
question “Is S a member of itself?”
⚫ Related Paradox:
⚫ Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not shave
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer the
question “Does Henry shave himself?”

Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)

Cambridge, UK
Nobel Prize Winner
Some things to remember
⚫ Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
⚫ The empty set is different from a set containing the empty
set.
∅ ≠{∅}
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have the
same elements.
⚫ Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if and
only if .
⚫ We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if every
element of A is also an element of B.
⚫ The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset of
the set B.
⚫ A ⊆ B holds if and only if is
true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
2. Because a ∈ S → a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.
Showing a Set is or is not a Subset
of Another Set
⚫ Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆ B,
show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
⚫ Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A is
not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with x ∉
B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that x ∈ A
implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is a
subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
Another look at Equality of Sets
⚫ Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by A
= B, iff

⚫ Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff

⚫ This is equivalent to
A⊆B and B⊆A
Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is a proper
subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, then

is true.

U
Venn Diagram B
A
Set Cardinality
Definition: If there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n
is a nonnegative integer, we say that S is finite. Otherwise it is
infinite.
Definition: The cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|, is
the number of (distinct) elements of A.
Examples:
1. |ø| = 0
2. Let S be the letters of the English alphabet. Then |S| = 26
3. |{1,2,3}| = 3
4. |{ø}| = 1
5. The set of integers is infinite.
Power Sets
Definition: The set of all subsets of a set A, denoted P(A),
is called the power set of A.
Example: If A = {a,b} then
P(A) = {ø, {a},{b},{a,b}}

⚫ If a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the power

set is 2ⁿ. (In Chapters 5 and 6, we will discuss different
ways to show this.)
Tuples
⚫ The ordered n-tuple (a1,a2,…..,an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element and a2 as its
second element and so on until an as its last element.
⚫ Two n-tuples are equal if and only if their corresponding
elements are equal.
⚫ 2-tuples are called ordered pairs.
⚫ The ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal if and only if a
= c and b = d.
 René Descartes
(1596-1650)

Cartesian Product
Definition: The Cartesian Product of two sets A and B,
denoted by A × B is the set of ordered pairs (a,b) where a
∈ A and b ∈ B .

Example:
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}

⚫ Definition: A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is

called a relation from the set A to the set B. (Relations will
be covered in depth in Chapter 9. )
Cartesian Product
Definition: The cartesian products of the sets A1,A2,……,An,
denoted by A1 × A2 × …… × An , is the set of ordered
n-tuples (a1,a2,……,an) where ai belongs to Ai
for i = 1, … n.

Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and

C = {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1),
(0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,2,2)}
Truth Sets of Quantifiers
⚫ Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the truth
set of P to be the set of elements in D for which P(x) is
true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by

⚫ Example: The truth set of P(x) where the domain is the

integers and P(x) is “|x| = 1” is the set {-1,1}
Set Operations
Section 2.2
Section Summary
⚫ Set Operations
⚫ Union
⚫ Intersection
⚫ Complementation
⚫ Difference
⚫ More on Set Cardinality
⚫ Set Identities
⚫ Proving Identities
⚫ Membership Tables
Boolean Algebra
⚫ Propositional calculus and set theory are both instances of
an algebraic system called a Boolean Algebra. This is
discussed in Chapter 12.
⚫ The operators in set theory are analogous to the
corresponding operator in propositional calculus.
⚫ As always there must be a universal set U. All sets are
assumed to be subsets of U.
Union
⚫ Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A
and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set:

⚫ Example: What is {1,2,3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}?

Venn Diagram for A ∪ B

Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} U
A B
Intersection
⚫ Definition: The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by
A ∩ B, is

⚫ Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are said to

be disjoint.
⚫ Example: What is? {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ?
Venn Diagram for A ∩B
Solution: {3}
⚫ Example:What is? U
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ? A B
Solution: ∅
Complement
Definition: If A is a set, then the complement of the A
(with respect to U), denoted by Ā is the set U - A
Ā = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
(The complement of A is sometimes denoted by Ac .)
Example: If U is the positive integers less than 100, what
is the complement of {x | x > 70}
Solution: {x | x ≤ 70} Venn Diagram for Complement
U
Ā
A
Difference
⚫ Definition: Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and
B, denoted by A – B, is the set containing the elements of
A that are not in B. The difference of A and B is also called
the complement of B with respect to A.
A – B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} = A ∩ B

U Venn Diagram for A − B

A
B
The Cardinality of the Union of Two
Sets
• Inclusion-Exclusion
U
|A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| − |A ∩ B|
A B

Venn Diagram for A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B

• Example: Let A be the math majors in your class and B be the CS majors. To count
the number of students who are either math majors or CS majors, add the number of
math majors and the number of CS majors, and subtract the number of joint
CS/math majors.
• We will return to this principle in Chapter 6 and Chapter 8 where we will derive a
formula for the cardinality of the union of n sets, where n is a positive integer.
Review Questions
Example: U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} A = {1,2,3,4,5}, B ={4,5,6,7,8}
1. A∪B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
2. A∩B
Solution: {4,5}
3. Ā
Solution: {0,6,7,8,9,10}
4.
Solution: {0,1,2,3,9,10}
5. A – B
Solution: {1,2,3}
6. B – A
Solution: {6,7,8}
Symmetric Difference
(optional)
Definition: The symmetric difference of A and B, denoted
by is the set

Example:
U = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A = {1,2,3,4,5} B ={4,5,6,7,8} U
What is : A B
⚫ Solution: {1,2,3,6,7,8}

Venn Diagram
Set Identities
⚫ Identity laws

⚫ Domination laws

⚫ Idempotent laws

⚫ Complementation law

Continued on next slide

Set Identities
⚫ Commutative laws

⚫ Associative laws

⚫ Distributive laws

Continued on next slide

Set Identities
⚫ De Morgan’s laws

⚫ Absorption laws

⚫ Complement laws
Proving Set Identities
⚫ Different ways to prove set identities:
1. Prove that each set (side of the identity) is a subset of the
other.
2. Use set builder notation and propositional logic.
3. Membership Tables: Verify that elements in the same
combination of sets always either belong or do not belong
to the same side of the identity. Use 1 to indicate it is in
the set and a 0 to indicate that it is not.
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
Example: Prove that
Solution: We prove this identity by showing that:

1) and

2)

Continued on next slide

Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:

Continued on next slide

Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:
Set-Builder Notation: Second De
Morgan Law
Membership Table
Example: Construct a membership table to show that the distributive law holds.

Solution:

A B C
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Generalized Unions and
Intersections
⚫ Let A1, A2 ,…, An be an indexed collection of sets.
We define:

These are well defined, since union and intersection are

associative.
⚫ For i = 1,2,…, let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, ….}. Then,
Functions
Section 2.3
Section Summary
⚫ Definition of a Function.
⚫ Domain, Codomain
⚫ Image, Preimage
⚫ Injection, Surjection, Bijection
⚫ Inverse Function
⚫ Function Composition
⚫ Graphing Functions
⚫ Floor, Ceiling, Factorial
⚫ Partial Functions (optional)
Functions
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f
from A to B, denoted f: A → B is an assignment of each
element of A to exactly one element of B. We write f(a) =
b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the function
f to the element a of A. Students Grades
⚫ Functions are sometimes A
Carlota Rodriguez
called mappings or B
transformations. Sandeep Patel C

Jalen Williams D
F
Kathy Scott
Functions
⚫ A function f: A → B can also be defined as a subset of
A×B (a relation). This subset is restricted to be a relation
where no two elements of the relation have the same first
element.
⚫ Specifically, a function f from A to B contains one, and
only one ordered pair (a, b) for every element a∈ A.

and
Functions
Given a function f: A → B:
⚫ We say f maps A to B or
f is a mapping from A to B.
⚫ A is called the domain of f.
⚫ B is called the codomain of f.
⚫ If f(a) = b,
⚫ then b is called the image of a under f.
⚫ a is called the preimage of b.
⚫ The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under f. We
denote it by f(A).
⚫ Two functions are equal when they have the same domain, the same
codomain and map each element of the domain to the same element of
the codomain.
Representing Functions
⚫ Functions may be specified in different ways:
⚫ An explicit statement of the assignment.
Students and grades example.
⚫ A formula.
f(x) = x + 1
⚫ A computer program.
⚫ A Java program that when given an integer n, produces the nth
Fibonacci Number (covered in the next section and also inChapter
5).
 Questions
f(a) = ? z A B
a
The image of d is ? z x
b
The domain of f is ? A y
c
The codomain of f is ? B
d z
The preimage of y is ? b
f(A) = ? {y,z}
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ? {a,c,d}
Question on Functions and Sets
⚫ If and S is a subset of A, then

A B
a
f {a,b,c,} is ? {y,z}
x

b
f {c,d} is ? {z} y
c

d z
Injections
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one , or
injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b for all
a and b in the domain of f. A function is said to be an
injection if it is one-to-one.
A B
a x

v
b
y
c
z
d

w
Surjections
Definition: A function f from A to B is called onto or
surjective, if and only if for every element there is
an element with . A function f is
called a surjection if it is onto.

A B
a x

b
y
c
z
d
Bijections
Definition: A function f is a one-to-one correspondence,
or a bijection, if it is both one-to-one and onto (surjective
and injective).

A B
a x

b
y
c

d z

w
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto
Showing that f is one-to-one or onto
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c,d} to {1,2,3}
defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) = 3. Is f an
onto function?
Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the
codomain are images of elements in the domain. If the
codomain were changed to {1,2,3,4}, f would not be onto.
Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of
integers to the set of integers onto?
Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no integer x
with x2 = −1, for example.
Inverse Functions
Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the
inverse of f, denoted , is the function from B to A
defined as
No inverse exists unless f is a bijection. Why?
Inverse Functions
A f
B A B
a V V
a

b b
W W
c c

d X X
d

Y Y
Questions
Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to {1,2,3}
such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = 1. Is f invertible and
if so what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a

one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function f-1
reverses the correspondence given by f, so f-1 (1) = c,
f-1 (2) = a, and f-1 (3) = b.
Questions
Example 2: Let f: Z Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a

one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function f-1
reverses the correspondence so f-1 (y) = y – 1.
Questions
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that . Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is not invertible because it is

not one-to-one .
Composition
⚫ Definition: Let f: B → C, g: A → B. The composition of f
with g, denoted is the function from A to C defined
by
Composition
g f
A B C A C
V a
a h h
b i b
W i
c
c
X j
d
d j
Y
Composition
Example 1: If and ,
then

and
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a,b,c} to itself
such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f be the function
from the set {a,b,c} to the set {1,2,3} such that f(a) = 3, f(b)
= 2, and f(c) = 1.
What is the composition of f and g, and what is the
composition of g and f.
Solution: The composition f∘g is defined by
f∘g (a)= f(g(a)) = f(b) = 2.
f∘g (b)= f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1.
f∘g (c)= f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3.
Note that g∘f is not defined, because the range of f is not a subset
of the domain of g.
Composition Questions
Example 2: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers to the set of integers defined by f(x) = 2x + 3 and
g(x) = 3x + 2.
What is the composition of f and g, and also the
composition of g and f ?
Solution:
f∘g (x)= f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g∘f (x)= g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x + 3) + 2 = 6x + 11
Graphs of Functions
⚫ Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The graph
of the function f is the set of ordered pairs {(a,b) | a ∈A
and f(a) = b}.

Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2

from Z to Z from Z to Z
Some Important Functions
⚫ The floor function, denoted

is the largest integer less than or equal to x.

⚫ The ceiling function, denoted

is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x

Example:
Floor and Ceiling Functions

Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions

Floor and Ceiling Functions
Proving Properties of Functions
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
⚫ 2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
⚫ ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
⚫ Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε≥½
⚫ 2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1,
since 0 ≤ 2 ε - 1< 1.
⚫ ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since 0≤
ε – 1/2< 1.
⚫ Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1.
Factorial Function
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the product
of the first n positive integers when n is a nonnegative
integer.

f(n) = 1 ∙ 2 ∙∙∙ (n – 1) ∙ n, f(0) = 0! = 1

Stirling’s Formula:
Examples:
f(1) = 1! = 1

f(2) = 2! = 1 ∙ 2 = 2

f(6) = 6! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3∙ 4∙ 5 ∙ 6 = 720

f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.
Partial Functions (optional)
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is an
assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called the
domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
⚫ The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively.
⚫ We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are not in the
domain of definition of f.
⚫ When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that f is a
total function.
Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial function from
Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of nonnegative
integers. Note that f is undefined for negative integers.
Sequences and
Summations
Section 2.4
Section Summary
⚫ Sequences.
⚫ Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic Progression
⚫ Recurrence Relations
⚫ Example: Fibonacci Sequence
⚫ Summations
⚫ Special Integer Sequences (optional)
Introduction
⚫ Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
⚫ 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
⚫ 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….
⚫ Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer
science, and in many other disciplines, ranging from
botany to music.
⚫ We will introduce the terminology to represent sequences
and sums of the terms in the sequences.
Sequences
Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of the
integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..} or {1,
2, 3, 4, ….} ) to a set S.
⚫ The notation an is used to denote the image of the
integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of f(n)
where f is a function from {0,1,2,…..} to S. We call an a
term of the sequence.
Sequences
Example: Consider the sequence where
Geometric Progression
Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence of the form:
where the initial term a and the common ratio r are real
numbers.
Examples:
1. Let a = 1 and r = −1. Then:

2. Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then:

3. Let a = 6 and r = 1/3. Then:

Arithmetic Progression
Definition: A arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form:
where the initial term a and the common difference d are real
numbers.
Examples:
1. Let a = −1 and d = 4:

2. Let a = 7 and d = −3:

3. Let a = 1 and d = 2:
Strings
Definition: A string is a finite sequence of characters from
a finite set (an alphabet).
⚫ Sequences of characters or bits are important in computer
science.
⚫ The empty string is represented by λ.
⚫ The string abcde has length 5.
Recurrence Relations
Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence {an} is
an equation that expresses an in terms of one or more of
the previous terms of the sequence, namely, a0, a1, …, an-1,
for all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a nonnegative
integer.
⚫ A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation if
its terms satisfy the recurrence relation.
⚫ The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms that
precede the first term where the recurrence relation takes
effect.
Questions about Recurrence Relations
Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an-1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and suppose that a0 =
2. What are a1 , a2 and a3?
[Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]

Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that

a1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a3 = 8 + 3 = 11
Questions about Recurrence Relations
Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and
suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3?
[Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ]

Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that

a2 = a1 - a0 = 5 – 3 = 2
a3 = a2 – a1 = 2 – 5 = –3
Fibonacci Sequence
Definition: Define the Fibonacci sequence, f0 ,f1 ,f2,…, by:
⚫ Initial Conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
⚫ Recurrence Relation: fn = fn-1 + fn-2

Example: Find f2 ,f3 ,f4 , f5 and f6 .

Answer:
f2 = f1 + f0 = 1 + 0 = 1,
f3 = f2 + f1 = 1 + 1 = 2,
f4 = f3 + f2 = 2 + 1 = 3,
f5 = f4 + f3 = 3 + 2 = 5,
f6 = f5 + f4 = 5 + 3 = 8.
Solving Recurrence Relations
⚫ Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence
generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the
recurrence relation.
⚫ Such a formula is called a closed formula.
⚫ Various methods for solving recurrence relations will be
covered in Chapter 8 where recurrence relations will be
studied in greater depth.
⚫ Here we illustrate by example the method of iteration in
which we need to guess the formula. The guess can be
proved correct by the method of induction (Chapter 5).
Iterative Solution Example
Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an =
an-1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.
a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 2
a4 = (2 + 2 ∙ 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
an = an-1 + 3 = (2 + 3 ∙ (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n – 1)
Iterative Solution Example
Method 2: Working downward, backward substitution
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation an =
an-1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.

an = an-1 + 3
= (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 3 ∙ 2
= (an-3 + 3 )+ 3 ∙ 2 = an-3 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.

= a2 + 3(n – 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n – 2) = 2 + 3(n – 1)

Financial Application
Example: Suppose that a person deposits $10,000.00 in a
savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year with
interest compounded annually. How much will be in the
account after 30 years?
Let Pn denote the amount in the account after 30 years. Pn
satisfies the following recurrence relation:
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000

Continued on next slide

Financial Application
Pn = Pn-1 + 0.11Pn-1 = (1.11) Pn-1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000
Solution: Forward Substitution
P1 = (1.11)P0
P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0
P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0
:
Pn = (1.11)Pn-1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000
Pn = (1.11)n 10,000 (Can prove by induction, covered in Chapter 5)
P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = $228,992.97
Special Integer Sequences (opt)
⚫ Given a few terms of a sequence, try to identify the
sequence. Conjecture a formula, recurrence relation, or
some other rule.
⚫ Some questions to ask?
⚫ Are there repeated terms of the same value?
⚫ Can you obtain a term from the previous term by adding an
amount or multiplying by an amount?
⚫ Can you obtain a term by combining the previous terms in
some way?
⚫ Are they cycles among the terms?
⚫ Do the terms match those of a well known sequence?
Questions on Special Integer
Sequences (opt)
Example 1: Find formulae for the sequences with the following
first five terms: 1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/16
Solution: Note that the denominators are powers of 2. The
sequence with an = 1/2n is a possible match. This is a
geometric progression with a = 1 and r = ½.
Example 2: Consider 1,3,5,7,9
Solution: Note that each term is obtained by adding 2 to the
previous term. A possible formula is an = 2n + 1. This is an
arithmetic progression with a =1 and d = 2.
Example 3: 1, -1, 1, -1,1
Solution: The terms alternate between 1 and -1. A possible
sequence is an = (−1)n . This is a geometric progression with a
= 1 and r = −1.
Useful Sequences
Guessing Sequences (optional)
Example: Conjecture a simple formula for an if the first 10
terms of the sequence {an} are 1, 7, 25, 79, 241, 727,
2185, 6559, 19681, 59047.

Solution: Note the ratio of each term to the previous

approximates 3. So now compare with the sequence 3n .
We notice that the nth term is 2 less than the
corresponding power of 3. So a good conjecture is that
an = 3n − 2.
Integer Sequences (optional)
⚫ Integer sequences appear in a wide range of contexts. Later we
will see the sequence of prime numbers (Chapter 4), the
number of ways to order n discrete objects (Chapter 6), the
number of moves needed to solve the Tower of Hanoi puzzle
with n disks (Chapter 8), and the number of rabbits on an
island after n months (Chapter 8).
⚫ Integer sequences are useful in many fields such as biology,
engineering, chemistry and physics.
⚫ On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OESIS) contains
over 200,000 sequences. Began by Neil Stone in the 1960s
(printed form). Now found at [Link]
Integer Sequences (optional)
⚫ Here are three interesting sequences to try from the OESIS site. To solve
each puzzle, find a rule that determines the terms of the sequence.
⚫ Guess the rules for forming for the following sequences:
⚫ 2, 3, 3, 5, 10, 13, 39, 43, 172, 177, ...
⚫ Hint: Think of adding and multiplying by numbers to generate this sequence.
⚫ 0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 9, 5, 1, 1, 0, 55, ...
⚫ Hint: Think of the English names for the numbers representing the position in the
sequence and the Roman Numerals for the same number.
⚫ 2, 4, 6, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 44, 46, ...
⚫ Hint: Think of the English names for numbers, and whether or not they have the letter
‘e.’

⚫ The answers and many more can be found at

[Link]
Summations
⚫ Sum of the terms
from the sequence
⚫ The notation:

represents

⚫ The variable j is called the index of summation. It runs through

all the integers starting with its lower limit m and ending with
its upper limit n.
Summations
⚫ More generally for a set S:

⚫ Examples:
Product Notation (optional)
⚫ Product of the terms
from the sequence

⚫ The notation:

represents
Geometric Series
Sums of terms of geometric progressions

To compute Sn , first multiply both sides of the equality

Proof: Let by r and then manipulate the resulting sum as follows:

Continued on next slide

Geometric Series
From previous slide.

Shifting the index of summation with k = j + 1.

Removing k = n + 1 term and

adding k = 0 term.

Substituting S for summation formula

∴
if r ≠1

if r = 1
Some Useful Summation Formulae
Geometric Series: We
just proved this.

Later we
will prove
some of
these by
induction.

Proof in text
(requires calculus)
Cardinality of Sets
Section 2.5
Section Summary
⚫ Cardinality
⚫ Countable Sets
⚫ Computability
Cardinality
Definition: The cardinality of a set A is equal to the cardinality
of a set B, denoted
|A| = |B|,
if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence (i.e., a
bijection) from A to B.
⚫ If there is a one-to-one function (i.e., an injection) from A to B,
the cardinality of A is less than or the same as the cardinality of
B and we write |A| ≤ |B|.
⚫ When |A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality, we say
that the cardinality of A is less than the cardinality of B and
write |A| < |B|.
Cardinality
⚫ Definition: A set that is either finite or has the same
cardinality as the set of positive integers (Z+) is called
countable. A set that is not countable is uncountable.
⚫ The set of real numbers R is an uncountable set.
⚫ When an infinite set is countable (countably infinite) its
cardinality is ℵ0 (where ℵ is aleph, the 1st letter of the
Hebrew alphabet). We write |S| = ℵ0 and say that S has
cardinality “aleph null.”
Showing that a Set is Countable
⚫ An infinite set is countable if and only if it is possible to
list the elements of the set in a sequence (indexed by the
positive integers).
⚫ The reason for this is that a one-to-one correspondence f
from the set of positive integers to a set S can be expressed
in terms of a sequence a1,a2,…, an ,… where a1 = f(1),
a2 = f(2),…, an = f(n),…
Hilbert’s Grand Hotel David Hilbert

The Grand Hotel (example due to David Hilbert) has countably infinite number of rooms,
each occupied by a guest. We can always accommodate a new guest at this hotel. How is
this possible?

Explanation: Because the rooms of Grand Hotel

are countable, we can list them as Room 1, Room
2, Room 3, and so on. When a new guest arrives,
we move the guest in Room 1 to Room 2, the
guest in Room 2 to Room 3, and in general the
guest in Room n to Room n + 1, for all positive
integers n. This frees up Room 1, which we
assign to the new guest, and all the current guests
still have rooms. The hotel can also accommodate a countable
number of new guests, all the guests on a
countable number of buses where each bus
contains a countable number of guests (see
exercises).
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers E is
countable set.
Solution: Let f(x) = 2x.
1 2 3 4 5 6 …..

2 4 6 8 10 12 ……
Then f is a bijection from N to E since f is both one-to-one and
onto. To show that it is one-to-one, suppose that f(n) = f(m).
Then 2n = 2m, and so n = m. To see that it is onto, suppose
that t is an even positive integer. Then t = 2k for some
positive integer k and f(k) = t.
Showing that a Set is Countable
Example 2: Show that the set of integers Z is countable.
Solution: Can list in a sequence:
0, 1, − 1, 2, − 2, 3, − 3 ,………..
Or can define a bijection from N to Z:
⚫ When n is even: f(n) = n/2
⚫ When n is odd: f(n) = −(n−1)/2
The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable
⚫ Definition: A rational number can be expressed as the
ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
⚫ ¾ is a rational number
⚫ √2 is not a rational number.
Example 3: Show that the positive rational numbers are
countable.
Solution:The positive rational numbers are countable
since they can be arranged in a sequence:
r1 , r2 , r3 ,…
The next slide shows how this is done. →
 The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable
First row q = 1.
Second row q = 2.
etc.

Constructing the List

First list p/q with p + q = 2.

Next list p/q with p + q = 3

And so on.

1, ½, 2, 3, 1/3,1/4, 2/3, ….
Strings
Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a finite
alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Solution: Show that the strings can be listed in a sequence.
First list
1. All the strings of length 0 in alphabetical order.
2. Then all the strings of length 1 in lexicographic (as in a
dictionary) order.
3. Then all the strings of length 2 in lexicographic order.
4. And so on.
This implies a bijection from N to S and hence it is a countably
infinite set.
The set of all Java programs is
countable.
Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is countable.
Solution: Let S be the set of strings constructed from the characters
which can appear in a Java program. Use the ordering from the
previous example. Take each string in turn:
⚫ Feed the string into a Java compiler. (A Java compiler will determine if
the input program is a syntactically correct Java program.)
⚫ If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct Java program,
we add the program to the list.
⚫ We move on to the next string.
In this way we construct an implied bijection from N to the set of
Java programs. Hence, the set of Java programs is countable.
The Real Numbers are Georg Cantor
(1845-1918)

Uncountable
Example: Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.
Solution: The method is called the Cantor diagnalization argument, and is a proof by
contradiction.
1. Suppose R is countable. Then the real numbers between 0 and 1 are also countable (any
subset of a countable set is countable - an exercise in the text).
2. The real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in order r1 , r2 , r3 ,… .
3. Let the decimal representation of this listing be

4. Form a new real number with the decimal expansion

where
5. r is not equal to any of the r1 , r2 , r3 ,... Because it differs from ri in its ith position after the
decimal point. Therefore there is a real number between 0 and 1 that is not on the list since
every real number has a unique decimal expansion. Hence, all the real numbers between 0
and 1 cannot be listed, so the set of real numbers between 0 and 1 is uncountable.
6. Since a set with an uncountable subset is uncountable (an exercise), the set of real numbers
is uncountable.
Computability (Optional)
⚫ Definition: We say that a function is computable if there
is a computer program in some programming language
that finds the values of this function. If a function is not
computable we say it is uncomputable.
⚫ There are uncomputable functions. We have shown that
the set of Java programs is countable. Exercise 38 in the
text shows that there are uncountably many different
functions from a particular countably infinite set (i.e., the
positive integers) to itself. Therefore (Exercise 39) there
must be uncomputable functions.
Matrices
Section 2.6
Section Summary
⚫ Definition of a Matrix
⚫ Matrix Arithmetic
⚫ Transposes and Powers of Arithmetic
⚫ Zero-One matrices
Matrices
⚫ Matrices are useful discrete structures that can be used in many
ways. For example, they are used to:
⚫ describe certain types of functions known as linear transformations.
⚫ Express which vertices of a graph are connected by edges (see Chapter
10).
⚫ In later chapters, we will see matrices used to build models of:
⚫ Transportation systems.
⚫ Communication networks.
⚫ Algorithms based on matrix models will be presented in later
chapters.
⚫ Here we cover the aspect of matrix arithmetic that will be needed
later.
Matrix
Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. A
matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m n
matrix.
⚫ The plural of matrix is matrices.
⚫ A matrix with the same number of rows as columns is called square.
⚫ Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of rows and the
same number of columns and the corresponding entries in every position
are equal.

3 2 matrix
Notation
⚫ Let m and n be positive integers and let

⚫ The ith row of A is the 1 n matrix [ai1, ai2,…,ain]. The jth

column of A is the m 1 matrix:

⚫ The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the

element aij. We can use A = [aij ] to denote the matrix with its
(i,j)th element equal to aij.
Matrix Arithmetic: Addition
Defintion: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m n matrices.
The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the m n
matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. In other
words, A + B = [aij + bij].
Example:

Note that matrices of different sizes can not be added.

Matrix Multiplication
Definition: Let A be an m k matrix and B be a k n matrix.
The product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the m n
matrix that has its (i,j)th element equal to the sum of the
products of the corresponding elements from the ith row of A
and the jth column of B. In other words, if AB = [cij] then cij =
ai1b1j + ai2b2j + … + akjb2j.
Example:

The product of two matrices is undefined when the number of

columns in the first matrix is not the same as the number of
rows in the second.
Illustration of Matrix Multiplication
⚫ The Product of A = [aij] and B = [bij]
Matrix Multiplication is not
Commutative
Example: Let

Does AB = BA?
Solution:

AB ≠ BA
Identity Matrix and Powers of Matrices
Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the m n
matrix In = [δij], where δij = 1 if i = j and δij = 0 if i≠j.

AIn = ImA = A
when A is an m n matrix

Powers of square matrices can be defined. When A is an n

× n matrix, we have:
A0 = In Ar = AAA∙∙∙A

r times
Transposes of Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m n matrix. The
transpose of A, denoted by At ,is the n m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.

If At = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n

and j = 1,2, ...,m.
Transposes of Matrices
Definition: A square matrix A is called symmetric if A
= At. Thus A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = aji for i and j
with 1≤ i≤ n and 1≤ j≤ n.

Square matrices do not change when their rows and

columns are interchanged.
Zero-One Matrices
Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0 or 1
is called a zero-one matrix. (These will be used in
Chapters 9 and 10.)
Algorithms operating on discrete structures represented by
zero-one matrices are based on Boolean arithmetic defined
by the following Boolean operations:
Zero-One Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be an m × n
zero-one matrices.
⚫ The join of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th entry
aij ∨ bij. The join of A and B is denoted by A ∨ B.
⚫ The meet of of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th
entry aij ∧ bij. The meet of A and B is denoted by A ∧
B.
Joins and Meets of Zero-One Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one matrices

Solution: The join of A and B is

The meet of A and B is

Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices
Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m k zero-one matrix
and B = [bij] be a k n zero-one matrix. The Boolean
product of A and B, denoted by A ⊙ B, is the m n
zero-one matrix with(i,j)th entry
cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j)∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨ … ∨ (aik ∧ bkj).
Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B, where

Continued on next slide

Boolean Product of Zero-One Matrices
Solution: The Boolean product A ⊙ B is given by
Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices
Definition: Let A be a square zero-one matrix and let r
be a positive integer. The rth Boolean power of A is
the Boolean product of r factors of A, denoted by A[r] .
Hence,

We define A[r] to be In.

(The Boolean product is well defined because the
Boolean product of matrices is associative.)
Boolean Powers of Zero-One Matrices
Example: Let

Find An for all positive integers n.

Solution: