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Department of English
Jahangirnagar University
Course Code: ENG 1202
Course Title: Introduction to Drama and Theatre
Full Marks: 15
Name: Arittra Guha
Batch: 52 (2nd Semester)
Roll: 857
Assignment Submission Deadline: 14-12-2024
1. Write a note on the history (evolution) of drama in English literature with references to
different periods. Incorporate relevant examples from the texts of your syllabus (or beyond)
based on their features and styles and elaborate.
Answer to the question no: 1
The history of evolution of drama in English literature with references to different periods
Introduction: Drama is one of the oldest types of storytelling that has evolved seriously in
English literature over the passage of time. There are various historical periods in drama that
enriched the drama over the time.
1) Classical period of drama (Ancient Greece and Rome)
At the very beginning Drama was developed in ancient Greece between the late 6th and
early 4th centuries BCE. Its influence was so profound that theater is widely enjoyed to this
day. Some of the earliest tragedies and comedies were written by the gifted intellectuals,
artists, and politicians living in the great city of Athens. Greek drama primarily consisted of
three types: tragedy, comedy, and satire play. Aristotle's Poetics mentioned key elements such
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as mimesis (imitation), unity of time and place, and catharsis. These dramas followed strict
conventions of plot and character, influencing modern drama. Although the term called
"classical drama" can refer to foundational theatrical traditions in other cultures but generally
denotes ancient Greek and Roman theatre. An example can be given from the syllabus:
(Sophocles' Oedipus Rex) a tragedy that focuses on fate, dramatic irony, and the tragic hero's
downfall.
2) Medieval period of drama (5th-15th Century)
Medieval drama, also known as the Middle Ages drama, refers to the dramatic
performances that were produced in Europe during the period from the 5th century to the
Renaissance in the 16th century. These forms of English drama came from religious rituals in
the Middle Ages. Ceremonial plays that were performed in Latin, showed Biblical stories and
aimed to guide the illiterate people. The medieval drama was divided into two different
categories: religious and secular. Religious ones were performed in churches, called
"Liturgical Plays"(in Latin). On the other hand, secular dramas were based on culture,
traditions and daily life of people and it was often performed in public spaces. Medieval
drama has many different types that can be mentioned: liturgy, mystery plays, miracle plays,
mortality plays, cycle plays, farces, interludes, masques and pageants. Each of these types of
drama had unique characteristics and played a vital role in the medieval period, setting the
foundation for later dramatic developments. There are some examples of medieval dramas
that can be given:
"The Play of Adam"- 12th Century
"The Second Shepherds' Play" - late 14th to early 15th century
"The York Mystery Plays" - 14th to 15th century
"Everyman" - late 15th century (c. 1495)
"The Interlude of the Student and the Girl" (c. 1300).
3) Renaissance period of drama (16th-17th Century)
The Renaissance marked the golden age of English drama. It was driven by the humanist
movement and the revival and development of classical Greek and Roman literature. This
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period (From 1562-1642) witnessed the rise of various professional theaters and playwrights
like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Ben Jonson, who expanded the scale of
drama and explored different human emotions, political intrigue and philosophical thoughts
that flourished until 1642. Basically, there are 3 types of play that were originated in this
period: Tragi-comedy, melancholy and revenge plays. Based on this, many different and
famous dramas and plays were developed. One mentionable example from our syllabus is
William Shakespeare's tragedy "Macbeth". Shakespeare’s Macbeth signifies Renaissance
drama with its mix of poetic language, profound character study, and thematic depth. Not
only that, Elizabethan and Jacobean playwrights also introduced many sub-genres like
revenge tragedy (The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd) and comedy of humors (Every Man
in His Humour by Ben Jonson), enriching the quality of drama. Apart from this, there are also
some other examples of renaissance drama that can be mentioned:
"Doctor Faustus" by Christopher Marlowe (c. 1592)
"Hamlet" by William Shakespeare (c. 1600)
"Volpone" by Ben Jonson (1606)
"The Duchess of Malfi" by John Webster (c. 1614)
"The Alchemist" by Ben Jonson (1610)
"Every Man in His Humour" by Ben Jonson (1598)
"Measure for Measure" by William Shakespeare (c. 1604)
4) Restoration period of drama (1660-1700)
After the Puritan ban on theater in the time of the Interregnum (a period in England
between 1649 and 1660 when England was ruled as a commonwealth without kings that
didn't last.) the Restoration had a revival effect on the reopening of theaters and the influence
of French drama. This period began in 1660 when King Charles II was restored to the throne
after the puritan dictatorship and lasted until 1688 when the Glorious Revolution happened.
In this time the dramas that were developed had characteristics of humor, satire as well as
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exploration of themes such as love, sex, and social class. Playwrights like William Congreve
and Aphra Behn explored themes of love, infidelity, and social claims, often with a cynical
tone. William Congreve's The Way of the World represents the wit and sophistication of this
period. This type of comedy has a somewhat complicated plot, and usually evolves around
romance and adventure (“English Restoration: Theatre Movements”). Some other
mentionable Restoration Playwrights are: George Farquhar, George Etherege, William
Wycherley etc. There are a lot of famous dramas that were developed in this period. For
example:
"The Country Wife" (1675) by William Wycherley
"The Way of the World" (1700) by William Congreve
"The Rover" (1677) by Aphra Behn
"Love for Love" (1695) by William Congreve
"The Man of Mode" (1676) by George Etherege
"She Stoops to Conquer" (1773) by Oliver Goldsmith
"The School for Scandal" (1777) by Richard Brinsley Sheridan
5) 18th-Century Drama
The 18th century faced a decline in serious drama because of the rise and popularity of
sentimental comedy and domestic tragedy. Sentimental comedies like Richard Steele’s "The
Conscious Lovers" mainly focused on moral lessons and virtuous characters. It aligns with
the period’s emphasis on morality and modesty. On the other hand, domestic tragedies were
focused on ordinary family or middle-class protagonists and their struggles. For example,
George Lillo's The London Merchant. These plays moved away from the main themes of
Renaissance tragedy, reflecting a shift in audience preferences toward relatable everyday
problems. Afterall of these there are still some great examples that needs to mentioned:
"The Gamester" (1753) by Edward Moore
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"The Rivals" (1775) by Richard Brinsley Sheridan
"The Beggar’s Opera" (1728) by John Gay
"She Stoops to Conquer" (1773) by Oliver Goldsmith
6) 19th Century (Romantic and Victorian Era)
In the 1850s, the number of entertainments on a theater bill began to be reduced, first to
two or three and later, to one main feature only. Acting styles in the early 19th century were
prone to exaggerated movement, gestures, grandiose effects, spectacular drama, physical
comedy and gags and outlandish costumes. Romantic drama focused on emotion,
imagination, and nature, but it was overshadowed by the rise of the novel. The Victorian era
brought melodrama, emphasizing sensationalism and moral lessons. The romantic period was
an artistic and literary movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th
century. The Victorian period is the period during the reign of Queen Victoria. The Romantic
Period began roughly around 1798 and lasted until 1837. Features of romantic dramas are -
Emotion and Individualism, Nature as a Source of Inspiration, Focus on the Exotic and the
Supernatural, Rebellion Against Authority, Celebration of the Common Man, Famous
Figures. Features of Victorian dramas are moral and social reformation, industrialization and
urbanization, realism and complex characters, interest in science and progress, focus on
family and domestic life, rise of serialized fiction, famous figures. Some famous dramas of
the 19th century are - 1. "Hernani" (1830) by Victor Hugo
2."Faust" (Part 1, 1808) by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
3."Cyrano de Bergerac" (1897) by Edmond Rostand,
4."A Doll's House" (1879) by Henrik Ibsen, 5."Ghosts" (1881) by Henrik Ibsen,
6. "The Cherry Orchard" (1904) by Anton Chekhov etc.
Example: George Bernard Shaw's Arms and the Man (from our syllabus) critiques societal
norms and idealistic views of war through satire and realism.
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7) Modern and Contemporary Drama (20th Century–Present)
Modern Drama is essentially a drama of ideas rather than action. Modern drama grew in
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was focused on average people, often
chronicling their alienation from modern society. Modernism brought experimental forms,
exploring themes of existentialism, social issues, and psychological depth. Actually, Modern
drama emphasizes realism and societal issues, often portraying everyday people and domestic
dramas. On the other hand, contemporary drama is more action-focused, utilizing theatrics
and often moving away from realism towards styles like surrealism and expressionism, while
addressing current social problems indirectly. The key features are -
1. Breaking the fourth wall
2. Non-linear narratives.
Other features of Modern Drama are - Realism and Naturalism, psychological Depth, critique
of Society, ordinary characters, innovative structure, symbolism and metaphor, Use of
colloquial language, themes of alienation. Other features of contemporary drama are diverse
themes, interdisciplinary approach, non-linear storytelling, deconstruction of traditional
forms, focus on marginalized voices, experimental staging, meta-theatricality, ambiguity and
open endings.
Example: Mahesh Dattani's Final Solutions (from our syllabus) reexamines communal
tension and identity, blending realism and symbolism.
Conclusion: The history (evolution) of drama in English literature mirrors societal
changes and the changing tastes of audiences. From the allegorical morality plays of the
Middle Ages to the complex tragedies of Shakespeare and the satirical thoughts of Shaw,
drama has continuously reinvented itself. Till now drama is considered as one of the greatest
forms of literature throughout the world.
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2. Write a note on the differences between Classical Tragedy and Shakespearean Tragedy.
Incorporate relevant examples from the texts of your syllabus (or beyond) based on their
features and styles and elaborate.
Answer to the question no: 2
Introduction: Tragedy is a genre of drama that has evolved significantly over time.
Classical tragedy and Shakespearean tragedy both has some fundamental characteristics but there
is difference in marked structure, style, themes, and portrayal of human fate.
[Link] and unity:
Classical Tragedy: It Originates from Ancient Greece. According to Poetics by Aristotle,
classical tragedy follows a definite convention. That is the three unities of time, place, and action.
The characteristics of classical tragedy is that it focuses on a noble protagonist (hero) with a
tragic flaw, leading to his own downfall due to his own actions. It is sometimes influenced by
fate or divine forces, resulting in a sense of catharsis for the audience; a prime example is
Sophocles' "Oedipus Rex" where the protagonist unknowingly fulfills a prophecy and this
causing his tragic demise and his ultimate downfall. The structure gives a clear beginning,
middle, and end, developing dramatic intensity.
Shakespearean Tragedy: Shakespearean tragedy is the story of suffering and calamity of
the tragic hero. These suffering and calamities are exceptional and it affects the whole nation. In
Shakespearean tragedy chance and fate plays important role. In Shakespearean tragedy
supernatural elements like ghosts and witches also play important role. For example, in Macbeth,
moves from the battlefield to Macbeth’s castle and beyond, covering months of time.
Shakespeare’s plays also feature five acts instead of the classical three, allowing for more
intricate developments.
2. Role of Fate and Free Will:
Classical Tragedy: In classical tragedy basically, fate dominates everything. Human beings
are portrayed as subject to the unchangeable will of the gods. If They attempts to escape destiny.
It often leads to dangerous consequences. In Oedipus Rex, Oedipus' downfall is predestined by
the prophecy. The prophecy says that "he will kill his father and marry his mother." His efforts to
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avoid this horrible fate rather fulfill it, underscoring humanity’s helplessness in the face of divine
will of God.
Shakespearean Tragedy: Shakespearean tragedies also acknowledge fate. Here emphasize
is made on the role of human free will and psychological complexity. Macbeth shows this
duality. Though the witches prophesy Macbeth’s rise to power but his ambition and moral
choices drive his actions. His internal conflict, driven by Lady Macbeth and his own insecurities,
leads to his tragic downfall. In the end Macbeth always had a choice throughout the play to
choose his own fate but he journeyed to his murderous doom through his own free will.
3. Protagonist and Hamartia:
Classical Tragedy: The classical tragic hero is normally a noble figure with a single tragic
flaw (hamartia) that usually leads to their downfall. Oedipus for example, embodies nobility but
suffers because of his ego or hubris (excessive pride) and emotional behavior. His inability to
temper his quest for truth with caution becomes his cause of failing.
Shakespearean Tragedy: Shakespearean heroes are more psychologically imbalanced and
has multiple tragic flaws (Hamartia) Macbeth is ambitious and courageous but he is also
indecisive, paranoid, and can easily be externally manipulated. These complex layers of senses
make his character relatable and human. One can easily connect the story and theme with their
life because of this relatable factor.
4. Themes and Morality:
Classical Tragedy: In Classical tragedy the themes of fate, divine justice, and the limitations
of human knowledge is explored. The suffering of the protagonist acts as a catalyst to evoke
catharsis (feeling of pity and fear etc.) in the audience, fulfilling a moral or cosmic order. For
example, in Oedipus Rex, Oedipus' gets punishment that restores balance and satisfies the moral
senses of justice.
Shakespearean Tragedy: The Shakespearean tragedies dives into different broader themes.
Like we can see as ambition (Macbeth), jealousy (Othello), betrayal (King Lear), and revenge
(Hamlet). Again, the moral order is not always restored. And it leaves the audiences with a sense
of existential ambiguity and crisis. In Macbeth, though Macbeth dies and the order is nominally
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restored properly but the psychological damage and societal problems linger that complicates the
resolution.
5. Role of the Supernatural Elements:
Classical Tragedy: Supernatural means something that is unexplained by the laws of
nature. The supernatural in classical tragedy is represented through the will of the gods and
oracles. These divine interventions serve as medium of fate and destiny. For example, in Oedipus
Rex, the prophecy from the Oracle of Delphi acts as a guide and it is central to the plot.
Shakespearean Tragedy: Here the Supernatural Elements are presented more dramatically
and openly. Shakespeare employs the supernatural more theatrically in his writings. For example,
In Macbeth, the witches show ambiguity and moral chaos. It also influenced Macbeth’s choices
but still leaves the ultimate responsibility to him. Ghosts and visions, such as Banquo’s ghost and
the bloody dagger, symbolize guilt and psychological turmoil rather than divine will.
6. Catharsis and Chorus:
Classical Tragedy: Catharsis is basically an impulsive experience where a person is able to
share, or express, emotions like pity and fear, ultimately leading to a sense of renewal. Aristotle
started the term catharsis which comes from the Greek word 'kathairein' meaning "to cleanse or
purge". It also describes the release of emotional pressure that the spectators experience while
watching dramatic tragedy. For Example: The audience feels sad for Oedipus, they can feel the
feelings of the characters who suffers for nothing, Afterall his efforts to act kindly.
Shakespearean Tragedy: In Shakespeare's tragedies, catharsis can occur when the audience
gets the opportunity to experience and release their negative emotions when a tragedy comes to
its fulfilment. For Example: Macbeth’s downfall creates pity for his tragic fall but also a serious
realization of the destructive power of ambition. Catharsis happens when Macbeth is killed after
all his pride about his invincibility. He bragged that no man could kill him who was given birth
by a woman. But MacDuff tells him that he wasn't born by a woman at all rather he was
surgically removed.
Conclusion: Classical and Shakespearean tragedies differ fundamentally in their aspects of
fate, character analysis, themes, and dramatic qualities. Oedipus Rex represents the inevitability
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of fate and divine justice. On the other hand, Macbeth explores human ambition, moral
ambiguity, and psychological depth. Both tragedies have unique characteristics, features and
styles from their own point of view.
References
Rooman, Umme. "The Evolution of English Drama: From Ritual to Performance."
Harris, Elif, and Elif Harris. “Introduction and History of English Literature.” ElifNotes,
23 Oct. 2023, [Link]/introduction-history-of-english-literature
“Medieval Drama: Origins and development of Medieval drama.” Literature-no-trouble,
[Link]/medieval-drama
Conversi, Leonard W., and Richard B. Sewall. “Tragedy | Definition, Examples, History,
Types, and Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 13 Dec. 2024, [Link]/art/tragedy-
literature/Theory-of-tragedy.
American Board. [Link]/Subjects/english/historical-development-of-
drama
[Link]/blogs/shakespearean-tragedy/167
“Tragedy Analysis in Poetics | LitCharts.” LitCharts,
[Link]/lit/poetics/terms/tragedy
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