UNIT-4

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural geology is the study of the internal structure and deformation of the Earth’s crust.
Structural geologists use a variety of techniques, including field observations, mapping,
geophysical methods, and laboratory experiments, to study how rocks are deformed and the
processes that control deformation. Structural geology is an important field because it helps us
understand the processes that shape the Earth’s surface, such as mountain building, faulting, and
folding. It also has practical applications in fields such as civil engineering, where the
characteristics of rocks and the forces that act on them are important for the design of structures
such as bridges and buildings. The study of structural geology is mainly accomplished with the
study of geological structures which are developed due to deformation. They are also known as
deformational structures or secondary structures. Primary structures form as the result of the
processes connected with the deposition of sediments. They are also known as depositional
structures, such as bedding planes.
Common terminologies used in structural geology.
Outcrop: They are exposure of rocks on the surface of the Earth (Figure 1). If the rocks are not
exposed on the surface of Earth, they are referred to as ‘in crop’. The outcrops are generally visible
along valley walls, river sections, mountains, road/ railway cuttings, and tunnels. Hence an outcrop
denotes an area on the surface of the Earth, over which a rock mass is exposed. The line of
intersection of the limiting surface of rock mass with the surface of the ground marks its’ limit.
The study of geological structures is generally carried out by the study of outcrops.
Layering: It is developed in rocks due to the deposition of sediments, rock materials, or minerals.
The deposition of sediments one over another in a basin results in layered or sedimentary rocks. A
bed is defined as an individual layer or strata of sedimentary rock (Figure 2). Each bed is separated
from the adjacent bed by a plane called a bedding plane. If the individual layers are less than one
cm thick they are called lamination. The process of deposition of sediments in a layer-by-layer
fashion is known as stratification.
The bedding planes are found in sedimentary rocks. Layering is developed in volcanic rocks
(igneous rocks) because of the flow of lava. It is also referred to as primary foliation because
these are developed simultaneously with the formation of the rock. The term secondary foliation
is used for layers found in metamorphic rocks. The layers in metamorphic rocks develop as a result
of the development of new minerals and the reorientation of mineral particles from pre-existing
rocks during the process of metamorphism. Slaty cleavage, schistosity, gneissosity, etc. fall in the
category of secondary foliation.
 Figure 1a- Stratification with numerous beds, bedding planes, and lamination
Deformation: This term is applied to a process in which the original rock is modified. The original
rock body is usually undeformed and can be modified by folding, jointing, faulting, or under the
effect of gravity. Let us discuss the three types of deformation that are caused mainly by the
horizontal movements of the lithospheric plates relative to one another. These forces are:
• Tensional forces stretch and pull rock masses apart,
• Compressive forces squeeze and shorten rock masses,
• Shearing forces push two parts of rock masses in opposite directions.
• If a rock mass is subjected to directed force for a short period, it usually undergoes three stages
of deformation:
• Initially, the deformation is elastic and on withdrawal of stress, the body returns to its original
form. The limiting stress is called the elastic limit.
• The deformation is plastic when the stress exceeds the elastic limit; that is the body only
partially returns to its original shape even if the stress is withdrawn.
• When there is stress continuously increases, one or more fracture develops and the body
eventually fails by rupture.
• Ductile and brittle are two commonly used terms by structural geologists. Brittle deformation
relates to the fracturing of the rock. Ductile deformation indicates bending, stretching,
folding, thinning of rocks, and realigning of grains
Dip and Strike
Initially, the sedimentary rocks are deposited on flat or gently inclined surfaces. Post-
depositional deformation is caused by the movements due to tectonic forces acting on rock
body or mass which causes the tilting of the beds.
• Dip: It is defined as the inclination of the bedding plane with respect to the horizontal. It is
measured in a vertical plane lying at right angles to the strike of the bedding.
• Strike: It is the geographical direction of a line produced by the intersection between inclined
layers and a horizontal plane (parallel to the surface of the Earth).
• The direction of dip: It is the geographical direction, along which a bed has maximum slope.
• Amount of dip: It is the angle that varies from 0o to 90o, according to the inclination of the
bed.

Strike is the direction of a line formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane with an inclined
plane and dip is the angle formed when a horizontal plane meets an inclined plane. The true dip is
the angle between the horizontal and inclined planes measured along a vertical plane at right angles
to the strike and the apparent dip is the dip measured in any direction other than the true dip
direction. The strike and dip can be represented by either a full circle or quadrant bearing and can
be measured by using a clinometer or Brunton compass.
What is a fold
A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms when rocks or a part of the earth’s crust is
folded (deformed by bending) under compressional stress. The folds are made up of multiple strata
(rock layers). The folds that are upwardly convex are called anticlines. The core (center) of an
anticline fold consists of the older strata, and the strata are progressively younger outwards. In
contrast, the folds that are downwardly convex are called synclines. The core of a syncline fold
consists of the younger strata, and the strata are progressively older outwards. Folding is a type
of earth movement resulting from the horizontal compression of rock layers by internal forces of
the earth along plate boundaries. From the point of view of their structure, geometry, and
appearance in space, several different types of folds have so far been recognized:-
Part of Fold
• Anticline- An anticline is the unfolded rock strata that take up an arch’s shape.
• Syncline- The downfolded rock strata, which looks like a trough, is called a syncline.
• Limbs- The two sides of the fold are called limbs.
• Axial Plane- The plane that bisects the angle between two limbs is called the axial plane.
• Axis- The line of intersection of the axial plane with the upper or lower surface of any rock
bed is called the axis.
• Strike- The strike of an inclined bed is the direction of any horizontal line on the bedding
 plane.
• Dip- The inclination of the rock beds with respect to the horizontal plane is called dip.
• Inflection point: a point on a folded surface where the curvature changes direction. This is
half the distance between hinge points.
• Crest: highest elevation point on a folded surface.
• Folds can be of any size, and it’s very common to have smaller folds within larger folds.
• Large folds can have wavelengths of tens of kilometers, and very small ones might be visible
only under a microscope.

Types of folds
1. Anticline- An anticline is a fold that is generally convex upwards. In the case of such folds,
the limbs commonly slope away from the axial plane. In most of the anticlines progressively
older belts occur towards the center of curvature of the fold.
2. Syncline- A syncline on the other hand is a fold that is generally concave upwards. The limbs
in syncline commonly slope towards the axial plane. In most of the synclines, progressively
younger beds occur towards the center of curvature of the fold. Syncline and anticline occur
in succession in any folded region.

3. Symmetrical- A fold, whether anticline or syncline, is described as Symmetrical when its

axial plane is vertical and thus both limbs have the same amount of dip. It results from an equal
amount of compressional forces acting from both sides.

4. Asymmetrical- However, if the forces are unequal asymmetrical folds developed. The limbs
of the anticline or syncline generally slope away from or towards each other, having a dip in
the opposite direction.
5. Overturned fold- If in any fold both the limbs dip towards the same direction, it is called an
Overturned Fold. In such a fold one limb occurs in a normal position whereas the other appears
to have been rotated or completely overturned from its usual position.
6. Isoclinal fold- If in any fold, the amount of overturning is such that both the limbs have the
same amount of dip in the same direction, the structure is called an Isoclinal fold.
7. Recumbent fold or nappe- When a fold is so much overturned that its axial plane is horizontal
or nearly so, it is described as a Recumbent fold. A nappe is a large sheet-like body of rock
that has been moved far from its original position. Nappes form during continental plate
collisions, when folds are sheared so much that they fold back over on themselves and break
apart. The resulting structure is a large-scale recumbent fold.

8. Monoclinal fold- In horizontal or gently sloping beds, slight and another localized change in
their usual altitude leads to the formation of a Monoclinal structure. In monoclines, the beds
are relatively flat but appear to have been bent locally to exhibit higher dips.

9. Fan fold- If in any fold, both limbs are overturned. In the anticlinal fan fold, the two limbs dip
toward each other. In the synclinal fan fold, the two limbs dip away from each other. They
assumed the shape of a fan and this is called Fan Fold.
10. Chevron folds - The crests and troughs of a fold are generally rounded. Occasionally,
however, sharp angular crests and troughs do occur in some folds and are described as
Chevron Folds. Sharp hinges and straight limbs.

11. Box fold/Conjugate fold - These folds are found in pairs whose axial surfaces are dipping
towards each other. (Two Hinge lines) A box fold is a special type of conjugate fold having
almost a rectangular outcrop pattern.

12. Synclinorium and Anticlinorium- A large syncline with secondary folds of smaller size
developed on geosyncline is known as Synclinorium while an anticline of similar nature is
called an Anticlinorium.

13. Drag fold/Parasitic fold - When a comparatively weak bed lies between strong beds, any
sliding motion in the stronger beds leads to the development of a minor asymmetric fold known
 as Drag fold/parasitic fold within the weaker folds.

14. Harmonic and disharmonic fold- If in a thick succession, folds almost follow the same style,
they are called harmonic folds. If they do not follow the same style as other layers the fold is
called a disharmonic fold.

15. Kink band- These are the narrow band only a few cm wide in which beds assumed a dip that
is steeper or gentler than in adjacent parts

16. Dome Fold:- Dome fold consists of a set of rock beds lifted centrally giving the feature of a
dome. The area of the rock bed lifted may be circular or oval-shaped. In a vertical section
through the summit, the fold exhibits an anticlinal feature. For this reason, this fold is also
called a compound anticline. After the domes are eroded, the younger rocks appear
surrounding the older rocks.
17. Basin Fold: Basin fold consists of a set of rock beds that are sunk centrally giving the feature
 of a basin. The area of the rock bed sunk may be circular or oval-shaped. In a vertical section
taken centrally, the fold exhibits a synclinal feature. For this reason, this fold is also called a
compound syncline. An asymmetrical fold is one in which the axial plane is vertical.

Importance of fold
Folds can also have important implications for engineering and construction projects. For example,
folds can affect the stability of slopes, the behavior of underground tunnels and caverns, and the
placement of foundations for buildings and other structures. By understanding the location and
orientation of folds, engineers and construction professionals can design projects that are better
suited to the geological conditions of a particular area.

FAULTS
A fault is a plane or linear zone of displacement, where rocks on one side of the plane slip past
those on the other side. They represent the brittle failure of rock when strain rates are high, a
condition usually associated with earthquakes. They form at Earth’s surface and at any depth in
the crust where brittle failure is possible. The amount of slip ranges from millimeters to 100s of
kilometers and can be generated in a single event or cumulatively in multiple events.
What is the speed of fault movement?
At faults, there is an enormous amount of friction between plates. Like a stretched spring, it stores
tremendous potential energy near the fault.
CREEP: If movement is slow at the fault, it’s called “creep”. By definition, “creep” means the
fault is always absent of sudden movements that could create an earthquake.
EARTHQUAKE: But if the two plates have a sudden jerky movement, this generates enough
force to produce an “earthquake”. At this point, elastic waves shoot outwards which is the force
one would feel from an earthquake.
TERMINOLOGY:
Strike of a Fault: It is the direction of the line of intersection of a fault plane and a horizontal
plane.
Hade: The hade of a fault is the angle of inclination of the fault plane measured from the vertical
Hanging Wall and Foot Wall: When the fault plane dips at any angle other than 90", one face of
the rock mass will lie above the fault, and the other will be below it. The block of rock is on the
upper side of the fault plane, is called the "hanging wall", and the block which lies below the fault
plane is called "foot wall".

Fig. Parts of the fault

Throw: The vertical displacement of the fractured beds is called the "throw" of the fault. The side
on which the strata appear to have thrown down is known as the "down throw side", while the
other side on which they appear to have gone up is called the "up throw side".
Heave: The horizontal displacement of strata as seen in a section of a fault, is called heave
Fault Slip: The amount of movement which results from faulting, is described by measurements
between points that were originally in contact. The total displacement is called the "net slip".

CLASSIFICATION OF FAULTS: With reference to relative movement, faults are classified as

follows:
1. Normal Fault: A normal fault is one in which the hanging wall appears to have moved
downward relative to the footwall. It is called "gravity fault". A normal fault appears to be that
the suspended wall moves downward relative to the footwall. The dip angle of the sliding
surface is between 45 and 90 degrees. Many normal faults in mountainous regions are caused
by gravity along the edges of the mountains and may be associated with the elevation of the
 headwall of the slums.
2. Reverse fault: A reverse fault is one in which the hanging wall appears to have moved upward
relative to the footwall. A reverse fault is the result of severe compressive stresses, where the
hanging wall moves up the fault plane relative to the footwall. The two sides of the fault move
closer together. This fault is also called a thrust fault. The fault plane is low angled resulting
in a large horizontal movement.

3. Strike-slip fault - A strike-slip fault is a generally vertical fault where the two sides pass
horizontally past each other. If the block opposite an observer facing the fault moves to the
right, the shift style is called “right lateral.. If the block moves to the left, the movement is
called “left lateral. The San Andreas Fault in California is the most famous example of a right
lateral impact-slip fault. It produces a variety of floor shapes including pulse shifts, louver
ridges, detachable basins, overhanging pools, and deflected streams.

4. Oblique-Slip Fault - A fault that has a component of dip-slip and a component of strike-slip
movement is termed an oblique-slip fault. Nearly all faults will have some component of both
dip-slip and strike-slip, so a fault that is classified as oblique requires both dip and strike
components to be significant and measurable.

5. Graben or rift fault: This is a fault system in which two normal faults occur whose fault
planes are inclined providing a common down throw side between them. The downthrown
block between the two fault planes forms a long trench called a graben or a rift valley. Some
grabens are very long and also deep and may be filled with water to become a water stream.
6. Horst: In this case, two normal faults occur whose fault planes are providing a common
upthrow between them. The upthrown middle wedge-shaped block forms a long ridge between
the fault planes and is called a horst or & fault ridge.

Difference Between Folding and Faulting

Folding Faulting

Tensional forces created due to the

Bends in rocks are called folds when they
displacement or movement of rocks are known
are the result of compressional forces.
as faults.

When compressional forces act on Folds are fissures that appear when forces
inherently flexible or ductile rocks, are applied in the opposite direction to
folds appear. displace or move the rock.

Folds generally occur on rocks that lie Faulting generally occurs on the layers of rocks
deep inside the earth’s crust and are that are located near the earth’s surface. These
under higher pressure than those lying on rocks are not confined under great pressure and
the upper surfaces. These increase their are too rigid to get folds. Besides, rocks tend to
flexibility and make the rocks more break if the tectonic plates are on the larger
susceptible to folding than breaking. side.

Faulting is often the result of nominal dip-slip

Numerous types of stress may give rise
faults. When the rocks compress against each
to folds in rocks. Temperature gradient
other vertically, some rocks tend to move
and pore pressure are two of the most
downwards due to the compression, thus,
prominent reasons for folding in rocks.
causing them to break.

Shortening of existing layers of rocks A rock’s fracture surface is known as the fault
commonly causes folding. However, the plane. Meanwhile, a fault line or trace is the
displacement on non-planner faults may particular location of the fault or where the
cause the rocks to fold. fault is visible.

When looked at from a perpendicular

A cluster of faults lying parallel to each other
stance, a fold can be divided into two
is known as a fault zone.
parts – hinge and limb. The former is the
 point of convergence of limbs, whereas However, this term is also used to designate the
the latter is the fold’s flanks. crushed rock area alongside one fault.

While minor folds are visible in All faults have measurable thickness though
outcrops, major folds are seen mostly in the intensity of the fault can vary depending on
arid regions. the rocks’ types, characteristics, and nature.

Most mountain ranges, such as the Alps River valleys and block mountains are formed
and the Himalayas, have resulted from due to faulting. For example, the Narmada
rock folding. and the Tapi valleys.

Importance of Faults: Faults are important due to their various dangerous as well as useful
effects. These are briefly given below:

(i) Faults cause considerable damage to rocks and are therefore real hazards in mining and
engineering works.
(ii) Fault breccia and fault gouge (pulverized rocks) have low strength and are poor foundation
materials.
(iii) There is additional difficulty and additional expenditure in excavations since fractured
rocks are difficult to handle.
(iv) Earthquakes and landslides are likely to be triggered by faults.
(v) To provide earthquake-proof structures it is necessary to have a knowledge of the location
and earthquake potential of faults. This is of particular importance in locating sites for dams
and reservoirs, hydropower structures, underground power, nuclear power stations,
tunnels, public buildings, school, and college buildings, etc.
(vi) Filling big reservoirs behind dams across river valleys may trigger movements along fault
planes leading to earthquakes.
(vii) Faults may create passages for water percolation. They may also provide passages for
mineralizing. Many fault zones are sites of mineralization.
(viii) Fault throw and fault heave constitute the most salient factors in the exploration and
recovery of mineral veins and coal seams.
(ix) Faults may create lakes, swamps, and marshy zones.
(x) Some fault zones form potential oil traps.

UNCONFORMITY
In the sedimentary rocks when the sediments are deposited without interruption they are said to be
conformable. The unconformity represents a major time gap in the sediments. These major gaps
in the sedimentation record are called Unconformity. An unconformity represents a buried
erosional or non-depositional surface separating two rock masses or strata of different ages,
indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous. In general, the older layer was exposed to
erosion for an interval of time before the deposition of the younger layer, but the term is used to
describe any break in the sedimentary geologic record. An unconformity represents the time during
which no sediments were deposited in a region, which means it represents a non-depositional
period.

Type Of Unconformity:

1. ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY: Angular Unconformity is a type of rock unconformity in

which the beds shows an angular relationship with each other. The horizontally parallel strata
of sedimentary rocks are deposited on the eroded and tilted layers of sedimentary rocks. It
takes hundreds of million years to produce Angular Unconformities in the rocks.

The formation of the angular unconformities in the rocks is based on the following steps:

• The sediments get weathered from land and move into the sea where they get accumulated.
These sediments takeover millions of years to get converted into layers of rock.
• As the tectonic disturbances cause the earth's crust constantly shifted, lifted, folded, and tilted.
These deposited sedimentary layers (beds) at sea beds also suffered such changes and get
uplifted above the sea level.
• These uplifted beds get eroded or weathered again by natural agents. Due to this erosion, the
edges of the tilted layers become flat.
• Finally, the sea level rises, and the land sink in the sea which again deposited the new
horizontal layers which show an angular relationship with the older rock beds

2. DISCONFORMITY: A disconformity occurs when two sedimentary rock layers lie together
in parallel positions, but have different ages. For example, one rock will be 100 million years
old and the other one is 300 million years old. The layers of sediments are uplifted without
folding or tilting and are eroded. In the end, the area subsides, and deposition resumes. The
rock layers on either side of the unconformity are nearly horizontal. It looks like the rock layers
 were deposited continuously but a time gap exists between the rock layers. In disconformity,
the difference between both the layers can be identified easily

NON-CONFORMITY: It is easier to recognize nonconformity if it occurs on

igneous/metamorphic rocks. It exists between sedimentary rocks and metamorphic or igneous
rocks. The sedimentary rock that lies above is younger and was deposited on the pre-existing and
eroded metamorphic or igneous rock which is older. The contact between them can be easily
recognized in the field due to the difference in characters of both younger (sedimentary) rocks and
older (metamorphic/igneous) rocks. The minerals, rock texture, and a closer examination of the
structure of rocks will enable us to recognize nonconformity.

PARACONFORMITY: A para-conformity is a type of unconformity in which the sedimentary

layers above and below the unconformity are parallel, but there is no obvious erosional break
between them. A break in sedimentation is indicated, for example, by fossil evidence. It is also
called nondepositional unconformity or pseudo-conformity.
 JOINTS:
Joints are cracks or fractures present in the rocks along, which there has been no displacement.
Joints occur in all types of rocks. They may be vertical, inclined, or even horizontal. Their dip and
strike are measured in the same way as that of sedimentary strata. Joints are formed as a result of
contraction due to the cooling or consolidation of rocks.
These fractures divide the rocks into parts or blocks and unlike the faults, the parts have not
suffered any movement along the fracture plane. There may be or may not be an opening up of
blocks perpendicular to the joint planes.
Nature of joints- Joints may be open or closed in nature. Open joints are those in which the blocks
have been separated or opened up for small distances in a direction at right angles to the fracture
surface. These may be gradually enlarged by weathering processes and develop into fissure in the
rocks. In closed joints, there is no such separation. Even then, these joints may be capable of
allowing fluids (gases and water) to pass through the rock
Classification of Joints: On the basis of the origin, joints may be classified into two groups: i.
Tension joints, and ii. Shear joints.
Tension Joints: Tension joints are those which are formed as a result of tensional forces. These
joints are relatively open and have rough and irregular surfaces. The columnar joints in lava flows,
and longitudinal joints in the anticlines, run parallel to the axis of the fold.

Shear Joints: Shear joints are those which are formed due to shearing stresses involved in the
folding and faulting of rocks. These joints are rather clean-cut and tightly closed. Shear joints occur
in two sets which intersect at a high angle to form a "conjugate joint system"
Based on their attitude and geometry, they may be classified as follows:
Strike Joints: Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks are called "strike joints".
Dip Joints: Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called "dip joints".
Oblique Joints: Joints that run in a direction that lies between the strikes and dip directions of the
rock beds are called "oblique joints".
Bedding Joints: Joints that are parallel to the bedding planes in sedimentary rocks, are called
"bedding joints".
Master Joints: In sedimentary rocks, the joints usually run in two directions at nearly right angles.
One set of joints runs parallel to the dip direction and the other parallel to the strike. Of these. One
set of joints is commonly more strongly developed than the other and extends for long distances.
Such well-developed joints are called "master joints".
Mural Joints: Granites show three sets of joints mutually at right angles which divide the rock
mass into more or less cubical blocks. Such joints are called "mural joints".
Sheet Joints: Sheet joints are often seen in the exposures of granites. These joints run in the
horizontal direction and are formed as tension cracks during the cooling of the rock. The sheet
joints are somewhat curved and are essentially parallel to the topographic surface. They are more
conspicuous and closer together near the ground surface.
Columnar Joints: Columnar joints are formed in tabular igneous masses such as dykes, sills, and
lava flows. These joints divide the rock into hexagonal columns which are arranged at right angles
to the chief cooling surface.
RECOGNITION OF THE FAULTS IN THE FIELD.
Faults are fractures in which there is relative displacement of the two blocks along the fault
plane. Faults can be recognized based on certain criteria.
1. Discontinuities’ in the structures.
2. Repetition and omission of the strata.
3. Characteristic features present on fault planes
4. Silicification and mineralization
5. Sudden changes in the sedimentary facies
6. And Physiographic criteria.
Some features are similar to the unconformities therefore it becomes very difficult to distinguish
between fault and unconformities in the field.
1. Discontinuities in the structures. If strata suddenly end against the different beds, the fault
may appear. On a mountain cliff, on the map, the discontinuity may appear as a line. The
disrupted data may appear on the same outcrops or nearby exposures. Dykes, veins may end
along a line and displaced rocks may appear elsewhere.
2. Repetition and omission of the strata. Due to faulting, there is repetition and omission of the
beds. This is because the rock beds get displaced along the fault plane. In case of reverse faults.
Thrust faults there are repetitions of the belts. These repetitions can be easily seen in the field
(Fig.5.3a)

3. Features on fault planes: Slickensides, gouges, mullions, breccias, and mylonites are
important features seen on the fault planes. Along the fault planes due to frictions, marking
and polished surfaces are produced along the movement of the blocks called slickensides
Mullions structures are large groves and furrows which are produced along the direction of
displacements. Due to frictions along the fault planes, some rocks get pulverized to form the
gouges Some angular and Sub-angular rock fragments of different sizes are formed with the
fine-grained matrix along the fault planes these are called breccias.
4. Silicification and Mineralization: As faults provide the channels for the movements of
hydrothermal solutions. This solution during their movement altered the surrounding rocks.
Silicification is a type of alteration in which silica content in the altered zone increases due to
the alteration of the rocks and deposition by the hydrothermal solutions. The fault plane
becomes the suitable site for the deposition of the ore minerals from the hydrothermal
solutions.
5. Sudden changes in the sedimentary facies: when there is a long horizontal displacement of
the rocks due to folding which is called thrusting there are contiguous strata of exactly the
same age that show very different sedimentary facies. If contemporaneous strata are
represented in the same area by the different sedimentary facies, then a fault of large
displacement occurs.
6. Physiographic criteria: If the down-through block of the fault is completely buried under the
alluvium, there is no direct evidence of faulting. In such cases, some physiographic features
are helpful for identifying the faults. These features are offset ridges, scarps, scarlets, triangular
facets, truncation of the sediments by mountain fronts, modified drainage patterns, and springs.
The steep straight slope of any height is called fault scarps(Fig.5.3d). It may be ten or thousand
feet high. A fault line scarp is a scarp whose relief is due to differential erosion along the fault
line (Fig.5.3d). A composite fault scrap is one whose relief is due to erosion and movement
along the fault plane. Scraps and Scraplets are the indicators of active faulting. These lie at or
near the foot of mountains. They are usually confined to unconsolidated rock, alluvial fans,
glacial moraines, and lake terraces. Triangular facets (Fig.5.3e) are developed along some
scarps in the fault. Triangular facets may also develop along fault line scraps.
RECOGNITION OF FOLDS IN THE FIELD:
1) The easiest and simplest way is eye inspection. If we found any geological structure
according to the normal definition of a fold then it can be identified as a fold only by direct
observation.
2) The repetition and absence of beds also indicate the presence of fold.
3) It is usually observed that streams follow the axis portion of the anticline ridges and high
lands and damped structures occur along the axis of the synclines. So; sometimes the
direction flow of a stream or river shows the presence of a fold.
4) When the types of folds are to be recognized based on the age consideration of the beds,
the top and bottom of beds are determined by taking into account the nature, and form of
the features occurring on the beds themselves. Accordingly, some types of folds have been
 inferred.
The folds can recognize in the field with the help of different methods and criteria, these are;
1. Direct observation:
2. Plotting the attitude of beds:
3. Map pattern
4. Topography
5. Drilling
6. Mining
7. Geophysical methods.
Direct observation: The most effective method for the identification of the fold is field
observation. The field observation of the fold is possible at a few places only, where they are well
exposed. These places may be mountain cliffs, large highway cuts (Fig.5.2c), road cutting along,
and natural exposures. In the visible exposures, folds are studied by their relation with minor
features associated with these folds, such as foliations. When small folds are recognized in the
field, their attitude is recorded such as the magnitude of their axial plane and axis. In the field large
fold cannot be observed in a single outcrop or a series of closely adjacent. In such cases, the attitude
of an axial plane and the axis cannot be measured directly.
2. Plotting the attitude of beds: The plotting of the dip and strike of the beds on the map is the
common method to recognize the folds which are larger than an outcrop (Fig.5.2d). The suitability
of this method depends on the complexity of the structure. In case of the complex structures most
exposures are necessary, whereas for simple structures few exposures are required.
3. Map pattern: In the geological map the pattern shown by the stratigraphic units is used for the
study of geological structures.
4. Topography: For the study of folds topography is very important. By following the topography
the important units can be traced for longer distances. The folds can be identified based on the
outcrop pattern. The difference in the resistance of rock produces different topography. Through
erosion, the less resistant rock forms the valleys and resistant rock forms the ridges. The attitude
of the bed may be determined quantitatively from the relationship of the bedding plane to the
contours. If the contact between the formation is parallel to the contour the strata is horizontal. If
irrespective of the topography the contact maintains a uniform strike the strata are vertical. The
dipping strata have an outcrop pattern that is partially controlled by contours. In the field, cuestas
indicate gently dipping formations. A concentric series of ridges with steep inner slopes but with
gentler inner slopes indicate domal structure.
5. Drilling: Drilling may provide vital information where the exposures are limited or absent. The
drill cores are used for determining the dip of the bedding plane. They understand the more
complex folding the more drill cores per unit area are used.
6. Mining: Mining operation especially coal mining provides valuable data as the mining may
expose large area and folds may expose for study. This method gives complete information on the
geological structure in the area.
7. Geophysical methods: Geophysical methods have been applied to determine geological
structures. These methods are gravimeter, seismic, magnetic, and electrical
RECOGNITION OF UNCONFORMITY IN THE FIELD
1. Visual inspection of the angular relation between the sequences.
2. Presence of Basal Conglomerate.
3. Availability of the residual soil within the sequence of rocks.
4. Exposure of the erosion surface.
5. Contrast the behavior of the rocks from a particular surface.
6. Variation or gap in the geological age of the rocks of the sequence

GEOLOGICAL MAPS
Geological maps are important tools used by geologists to represent the distribution and
characteristics of rocks and geological features on the Earth’s surface. These maps are essential
for understanding the geological history, tectonic processes, and natural resources of a given area.
Here are some key topics related to geological maps

Definition and purpose of geological maps: Geological maps provide a visual representation of
the geology of a region, including rock types, faults, folds, and other geological features. The
purpose of these maps is to help geologists understand the geological history and structure of a
given area, which can be used for a variety of purposes, such as mineral exploration, and natural
resource management. Geological maps can also be used to identify potential hazards such as
landslides, earthquakes, and volcanic eruptions. By understanding the geological history and
structure of an area, scientists can make predictions about the likelihood of these hazards
occurring, and take steps to mitigate their potential impact.

Map symbols and conventions: Geological maps use a variety of symbols and conventions to
represent different geological features. These symbols can include colors, patterns, and line types,
which represent different rock types, faults, folds, and other features.

Scale and accuracy: Geological maps are created at different scales, depending on the size of the
area being studied. The accuracy of these maps is also an important consideration, as errors or
inaccuracies can have significant implications for natural resource management, hazard
assessment, and engineering projects.

Interpretation and analysis: Once a geological map has been created, it must be interpreted and
analyzed in order to gain a deeper understanding of the geology of the region. This can involve
identifying relationships between different rock types, faults, and folds, as well as analyzing the
spatial distribution and orientation of geological features.

Applications of geological maps: Geological maps have a wide range of applications, including
mineral exploration, natural resource management, hazard assessment, and engineering projects.
These maps can also be used to help scientists better understand the geological history and
evolution of the Earth.

Limitations and challenges: Geological maps have some limitations and challenges, including
the difficulty of accurately representing complex geological features, the need for accurate data
and field observations, and the potential for errors and inaccuracies.

Overall, geological maps are an important tool for geologists and other scientists to understand the
structure and history of the Earth’s surface. These maps can provide valuable insights into natural
resource management, hazard assessment, and engineering projects, and can help scientists gain a
better understanding of the geological processes that have shaped our planet.

Steps for drawing of geological cross-section:

1. Selection of a Section Line

2. Identification of the Structure and series of the map
(Demarcation of Line of Unconformity in multi-series)
3. Drawing of Strike line
4. Observation of Dip, Dip direction & thickness of the beds
5. Rough Sketches & estimation for the drawing of Cross Section
6. Making of the paper strip
7. Drawing of Cross Section
• Relief Profile drawing
• Beds and unconformity drawing
• The sequence of beds and annotation
• The succession of beds Heading & Caging
• Scale of drawing