Basra University-College of Engineering
Department of Computer Engineering
Third Year
Semester – 1
Analog Electronics
Asst. Prof. Dr. Ali A. Abed
2020/2021
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Syllabus
1. Chapter 1: Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
1.1 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers.
1.2 Op-Amp Input Modes and Parameters.
1.3 Negative Feedback.
1.4 Op-Amps with Negative Feedback.
1.5 Effects of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances.
1.6 Bias Current and Offset Voltage.
1.7 Open-Loop Frequency and Phase Responses.
1.8 Closed-Loop Frequency Response.
2. Chapter 2: Basic Op-Amp Circuits
2.1 Comparators.
2.2 Summing Amplifiers.
2.3 Integrators and Differentiators.
3. Chapter 3: Special-Purpose Op-Amp Circuits
3.1 Instrumentation Amplifiers.
3.2 Isolation Amplifiers.
3.3 Operational Transconductance Amplifiers (OTAs).
3.4 Analog Multiplier
4. Chapter 4: Oscillators
4.1 The Oscillator
4.2 Feedback Oscillators
4.3 Oscillators with RC Feedback Circuits
4.4 Oscillators with LC Feedback Circuits
4.5 Relaxation Oscillators
4.6 The 555 Timer as an Oscillator
5. Chapter 5: Voltage and Current Regulators
5.1 Voltage Regulation
5.2 Basic Linear Series Regulators
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5.3 Basic Linear Shunt Regulators
6. Chapter 6: Power Amplifier
6.1 The Class A Power Amplifier
6.2 The Class B and Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers
6.3 The Class C Amplifier
7. Chapter 7: Active Filters
7.1 Basic Filter Responses
7.2 Filter Response Characteristics
7.3 Active Low-Pass Filters
7.4 Active High-Pass Filters
7.5 Active Band-Pass Filters
7.6 Active Band-Stop Filters
References
1. Floyd, Thomas L. Electronic devices: electron flow version /
Thomas L. Floyd. 9th edition.
2. Robert Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky. Electronic Devices and
Circuit Theory / 7th edition.
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Chapter 1
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
1.1 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers
*Devices, such as diode and transistor, are separate devices that are
individually packaged and interconnected in a circuit with other devices to
form a complete circuit. Such devices are referred to as discrete components.
*In this course, you will begin the study of linear integrated circuits (ICs),
where many transistors, diodes, resistors, and capacitors are fabricated on a
single tiny chip of semi-conductive material and packaged in a single case to
form a functional circuit.
*An example of IC is the operational amplifier (op-amp), which is treated as
a single device.
*Early operational amplifiers were used primarily to perform mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, integration, and differentiation thus
the term operational.
*Most op-amps operate with two dc supply voltages, one positive and the
other negative, as shown in Figure 1–1(b).
*Refer to Figure 1-1 for Op-Amp symbols and packages.
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Figure 1–1 Op-amp symbols and packages.
The Ideal Op-Amp
*The ideal op-amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite bandwidth, and infinite
input impedance (open) so that it does not load the driving source. It has a
zero-output impedance as illustrated in Figure 1–2(a).
Figure 1–2 Basic op-amp representations.
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The Practical Op-Amp
*Characteristics of a practical op-amp are very high voltage gain, very high
input impedance, and very low output impedance as in Figure 1–2(b).
1.2 Op-Amp Input Modes and Parameters
Differential Mode: either one signal is applied to an input with the other input
grounded or two opposite-polarity (out of phase) signals are applied to the
inputs.
Figure 1–3 Single-ended differential mode.
Figure 1–4 Double-ended differential mode.
Common Mode: two signal voltages of the same phase, frequency, and
amplitude are applied to the two inputs, as shown in Figure 1–5. When equal
input signals are applied to both inputs, they tend to cancel, resulting in a zero-
output voltage common-mode rejection.
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Figure 1–5 Common-mode operation.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio Desired signals can appear on only one input
or with opposite polarities on both input lines. These desired signals are
amplified and appear on the output as previously discussed. Unwanted signals
(noise) appearing with the same polarity on both input lines are essentially
cancelled by the op-amp and do not appear on the output.
*The measure of an amplifier’s ability to reject common-mode signals is a
parameter called the CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio).
or in decibels (dB) as:
*The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain
of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when
there are no external components.
Example 1.1
A certain op-amp has an open-loop differential voltage gain of 100,000 and a
common-mode gain of 0.2. Determine the CMRR in dB.
Solution
Aol = 100,000, and Acm = 0.2
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CMRR = Aol/Acm = 100,000/0.2 = 500,000
Expressed in decibels,
CMRR = 20 log (500,000) = 114 dB
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Maximum Output Voltage Swing (Vo(p-p)) with no input signal, the output of
an Op-amp is ideally 0V. This is called the quiescent output voltage.
*When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output
signal are ±VCC (practically less than VCC).
Input Offset Voltage
*The input offset voltage, VOS, is the differential dc voltage required between
the inputs to force the output to zero volts. Typical values of input offset
voltage are in the range of 2 mV or less. In the ideal case, it is 0V.
Slew Rate The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to
a step input voltage is the slew rate of an op-amp.
*Slew rate is measured with an op-amp connected as shown in Figure 1–6(a).
Figure 1–6 Slew-rate measurement.
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where ∆Vout = +Vmax - (-Vmax). The unit of slew rate is volts per microsecond (V/µs).
Example 1.2
The output voltage of a certain
op-amp appears as shown in
Figure 1–7 in response to a step
input. Determine the slew rate.
Solution
1.3 Negative Feedback
It is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is
returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes (or subtracts from) the
input signal Figure 1-8.
Figure 1–8 Illustration of negative feedback.
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H.W.) Why We Use Negative Feedback?
*The usefulness of an op-amp operated without negative feedback is generally
limited to comparator applications (to be studied in the next chapter).
*With negative feedback, the closed-loop voltage gain (Acl) can be reduced
and controlled so that the op-amp can function as a linear amplifier.
*In addition to providing a controlled, stable voltage gain, negative feedback
also provides for control of the input and output impedances and amplifier
bandwidth.
1.4 Op-Amps with Negative Feedback
Noninverting Amplifier
An op-amp connected in a closed-loop configuration as a noninverting
amplifier with a controlled amount of voltage gain is shown in Figure 1–9.
The feedback voltage is expressed as:
Figure 1–9 Noninverting amplifier.
The output voltage expressed as:
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Vout = Aol (Vin - Vf)
The attenuation, B, of the feedback circuit is:
Substituting BVout for Vf in the Vout equation,
Vout = Aol (Vin - BVout)
Figure 1–10 Differential input, Vin - Vf.
Then applying basic algebra,
Vout = AolVin – AolBVout
Vout + AolBVout = AolVin
Vout (1 + AolB) = AolVin
Since the overall voltage gain of the amplifier in Figure 1–16 can be expressed
as:
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The product AolB is typically much greater than 1, so the equation simplifies
to the
The closed-loop gain of the noninverting (NI) amplifier is the reciprocal of
the attenuation (B) of the feedback circuit (voltage-divider).
Therefore,
Notice that the closed-loop voltage gain is not at all dependent on the op-
amp’s open-loop voltage gain under the condition AolB ˃˃ 1. The closed-
loop gain can be set by selecting values of Ri and Rf.
Example 1.3
Determine the closed-loop voltage
gain of the amplifier in
Figure 1–11 below.
Solution
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Voltage-Follower
The voltage-follower configuration is a special case of the noninverting
amplifier where all the output voltage is fed back to the inverting (-) input by
a straight connection, as shown in Figure 1–12.
Since B=1 for a voltage-follower, the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage
follower is:
Acl (VF) = 1
Figure 1–12 Op-amp voltage-follower (buffer amplifier)
It is an ideal buffer amplifier for interfacing high-impedance sources and low-
impedance loads.
Inverting Amplifier
Figure 1–13 Inverting amplifier.
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The zero voltage at the inverting input terminal is referred to as virtual ground.
This condition is illustrated in Figure 1–14(a). Since there is no current at the
inverting input, the current through Ri and the current through Rf are equal, as
shown in Figure 1–14(b).
Iin = If
Figure 1–14 Virtual ground concept and closed-loop voltage gain development for the
inverting amplifier.
The voltage across Ri equals Vin because the resistor is connected to virtual
ground at the inverting input of the op-amp. Therefore,
Also, the voltage across Rf equals –Vout because of virtual ground, and
therefore,
Since If = Iin,
Rearranging the terms,
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Of course, Vout /Vin is the overall gain of the inverting (I) amplifier.
Example 1.4
Given the op-amp configuration
in Figure 1–15, determine the
value of Rf required to produce
a closed-loop voltage gain of -
100.
Solution
Knowing that and the absolute value of the closed-loop gain is calculate Rf as
follows:
1.5 Effects of Negative Feedback on Op-Amp Impedances
Negative feedback affects the input and output impedances of an op-amp.
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Example 1.5
a. Determine the input and output
impedances of the amplifier in
Figure 1–16. The Op-amp
datasheet gives Zin = 2M,
Zout = 75 , and Aol = 200,000.
b. Find the closed-loop voltage
gain.
Solution
a. The attenuation, B, of the feedback circuit is:
This is such a large number that, for all practical purposes, it can be assumed
to be infinite as in the ideal case.
This is such a small number that, for all practical purposes, it can be assumed
to be zero as in the ideal case.
b.
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Voltage-Follower Impedances
Example 1.6
The Op-amp in this example used in a voltage-follower configuration.
Determine the input and output impedances.
Solution
Since B = 1,
Impedances of the Inverting Amplifier
Example 1.7
Find the values of the input
and output impedances in
Figure 1–17. Also, determine
the closed-loop voltage gain.
The op-amp has the following
parameters: Aol = 50,000; Zin
= 4MA; and Zout = 50 A.
Solution
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