MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION:

Manufacturing processes refer to the systematic methods and operations used to transform raw materials
into finished products through physical, chemical, or mechanical means. These processes are essential
to produce goods at scale, with consistency, quality, and efficiency. Manufacturing processes can be
broadly divided into two groups: primary manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing
processes.

• Primary manufacturing processes provide basic shape and size to the material as per the
designer’s requirement. Casting, forming, and powder metallurgy are examples of such
processes.
• Secondary manufacturing processes provide the final shape and size with tighter control on
dimensions, surface characteristics, etc.

Material removal processes can once again be divided into two groups, as shown in Figure 1:

• Conventional Machining Processes: Mostly remove material in the form of chips by applying
forces on the work material with a wedge-shaped cutting tool that is harder than the work
material under machining conditions. The most important examples of conventional machining
processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding, etc.
• Non-Traditional Machining Processes: Also called non-conventional machining processes, is
defined as a group of processes that remove the excess of material by various techniques
involving mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy or combinations of these energies,
but do not use sharp cutting tools as it needs to be used for traditional manufacturing processes.

NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING:

Non-traditional manufacturing processes are defined as a group of processes that remove excess
material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical energy or
combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tool as it needs to be used for traditional
manufacturing processes.

Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining processes such as
turning, drilling, shaping, and milling. Non-traditional machining processes, also called advanced
machining processes, are employed where traditional machining processes are not feasible, satisfactory,
or economical due to special reasons as outlined below.

• Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining

• When the workpiece is too flexible or slender
• When the shape of the part is too complex.
Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra required
machining conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer many advantages over
non-traditional machining processes.

Figure 1: Material removal processes

Definition:

A machining process is called Non-traditional machining if its material removal mechanism is basically
different than those in the traditional processes, i.e. a different form of energy (other than the excessive
forces exercised by a tool, which is in physical contact with the work piece) is applied to remove the
excess material from the work surface, or to separate the workpiece into smaller parts.

Need for development of Non-Conventional Processes:

The mechanical strength of steel alloys has significantly improved due to sustained research and
development (R&D) efforts. In technologically demanding sectors such as aerospace, there is a critical
requirement for materials that exhibit both high strength at elevated temperatures and low density. This
necessity has driven the development and widespread application of hard-to-machine alloys such as
titanium alloys, nickel-based superalloys (e.g., Nimonic), and other high-strength temperature-resistant
(HSTR) materials. Remarkably, advancements in material science have led to enhancements in ultimate
tensile strength by up to 20 times compared to earlier alloys.

Simultaneously, the emergence of cutting tools with extremely high hardness values—ranging between
80 to 85 HRC—has posed considerable challenges for conventional machining processes, which are
often incapable of economically processing such materials. This technological evolution has
necessitated the development and adoption of non-conventional machining techniques.

Several factors underscore the increasing relevance of non-conventional machining methods in modern
manufacturing:

• Material Complexity in Advanced Industries: High-performance sectors such as aerospace,

nuclear power, semiconductor fabrication, and automotive engineering increasingly rely on
HSTR alloys and other advanced materials like titanium, stainless steel (SST), Nimonic alloys,
ceramics, and semiconductor-grade composites. These materials offer exceptional strength-to-
weight ratios but are notoriously difficult to machine using conventional techniques.
• Geometrical and Structural Complexity: The fabrication of components with intricate
geometries and complex shapes—particularly those made from hard-to-machine alloys—is
often inefficient, time-consuming, and economically unfeasible when relying on traditional
machining approaches.
• Precision and Surface Quality Requirements: Contemporary product designs often demand
highly accurate geometries, tight tolerances, and superior surface finishes. These requirements,
particularly for components made from exotic materials, are difficult to meet using
conventional machining without incurring high costs or tool wear.

Key Characteristics of Non-Conventional Machining (NTM) Processes:

Non-conventional machining processes represent a class of advanced material removal techniques that
diverge significantly from traditional mechanical machining in their principles of operation and
underlying energy mechanisms. These processes are particularly suited for machining hard-to-machine
materials, complex geometries, and components requiring high precision and surface integrity. The
distinguishing characteristics of non-conventional machining processes are as follows:

• Material removal without prominent chip formation: Material removal in non-conventional

machining processes may occur with or without the formation of conventional chips. In
processes such as Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), the removed particles are microscopic, while
in Electrochemical Machining (ECM), material is removed through electrochemical dissolution
at the atomic level, eliminating any visible chip formation.
• Absence of physical cutting tools in certain processes: Unlike conventional machining, non-
conventional machining methods may not always require a physical tool for material removal.
For instance, in Laser Beam Machining (LBM), material is removed through thermal energy
delivered by a concentrated laser beam. However, in ECM, although the process is non-
traditional, a physical tool (cathode) is essential to facilitate the electrochemical reaction and
define the machining geometry.
 • Tool material need not be harder than the workpiece: One of the remarkable features of non-
conventional machining processes is that the tool does not need to be harder than the work
material. For example, in Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM), soft materials like copper or
graphite are effectively used to machine hard and hardened steels due to the thermal nature of
material removal.
• Utilization of diverse energy domains beyond mechanical energy: Non-conventional machining
processes are characterized by the use of various forms of energy—thermal, chemical,
electrochemical, or a combination thereof—for material removal, rather than relying solely on
mechanical forces.

These characteristics make non-conventional machining methods highly advantageous for applications
involving:

• Extremely hard or brittle materials

• Complex micro-features and contours
• High precision with minimal residual stresses
• No tool wear in some cases (e.g., ECM)

Thus, non-conventional machining methods expand the capabilities of modern manufacturing,

especially in aerospace, biomedical, electronics, and precision engineering sectors.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING

PROCESSES:

Sl. No. Conventional Machining Process Non-conventional Machining Process

1. The cutting tool and workpiece are There is no physical contact between the
always in physical contact with relative tool and the workpiece. In some non-
motion with each other, which results in traditional processes, tool wear exists.
friction and tool wear.
2. Material removal rate is limited by the Non-conventional machining processes can
mechanical properties of the work machine difficult-to-cut and hard-to-cut
material. materials like titanium, ceramics, nimonics,
composites, and semiconducting materials.
3. Relative motion between the tool and Many non-conventional machining
work is typically rotary or reciprocating. processes are capable of producing complex
Thus, the shape of work is limited to 3D shapes and cavities.
circular or flat shapes. Despite CNC
systems, the production of 3D surfaces is
still a difficult task.
 4. Machining of small cavities, slits, blind Machining of small cavities, slits, and
holes, or through holes is difficult. production of non-circular, micro-sized,
large aspect ratio, shall entry angle holes are
easy using non-conventional machining
processes.
5. Use relatively simple and inexpensive Non-traditional processes require expensive
machinery and readily available cutting tools and equipment as well as skilled
tools. labour, which increase the production cost
significantly.
6. Capital cost and maintenance cost are Capital cost and maintenance cost are high.
low.
7. Traditional processes are well Mechanics of material removal of some of
established, and the physics of the non-conventional machining processes are
process is well understood. still under research.
8. Conventional process mostly uses Most non-conventional machining process
mechanical energy. uses energy in direct form, for example,
lasers and electron beams are used in their
direct forms in LBM and EBM,
respectively.
9. Surface finish and tolerances are limited High surface finish (up to 0.1 micron) and
by machining inaccuracies. tolerances (25 microns) can be achieved.
10. High metal removal rate. Comparatively low metal removal rate.

CLASSIFICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES:

Non-conventional machining processes are broadly classified based on the form of energy used to
remove material, as shown in Figure 2. The four primary categories are:

Mechanical Energy-Based Non-Conventional Machining Processes:

Mechanical non-conventional machining processes primarily operate through the erosion of the work
material using a high-velocity stream of abrasives, fluid, or a combination of both. These processes are
distinctly characterized by the application of mechanical energy, either in the form of high-frequency
vibrations or as the kinetic energy carried by high-speed abrasive or fluid jets. The material removal
mechanism relies on localized mechanical impacts rather than thermal or chemical interactions, making
these techniques especially suitable for brittle, hard, or composite materials.

The key processes under this category include:

 • Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM): Material is removed by a focused stream of high-velocity
abrasive particles carried by a gas medium, suitable for brittle and heat-sensitive materials.

• Ultrasonic Machining (USM): Utilizes high-frequency vibrations of a tool in the presence of

an abrasive slurry to achieve micro-chipping and erosion, particularly effective for hard and
brittle materials like ceramics and glass.

• Water Jet Machining (WJM): Employs a high-pressure water jet to erode softer materials,
with modifications (e.g., addition of abrasives) enabling the machining of harder substances.

Figure 2: Classification of non-conventional machining processes based on the form of energy

used to remove material

Electrochemical Energy-Based Non-Conventional Machining Processes:

Electrochemical machining processes utilize electrochemical energy to remove material from the
workpiece. The fundamental principle is based on the controlled anodic dissolution of the workpiece
material, which is typically conductive. This process is essentially the reverse of electroplating, where
material is removed instead of deposited. Electrical energy, in the form of direct current (DC), is applied
between a tool (cathode) and the workpiece (anode) in the presence of a suitable electrolyte, facilitating
the material removal through electrochemical reactions without significant mechanical or thermal
stresses.

Key electrochemical machining processes include:

• Electrochemical Machining (ECM): A precise material removal process based on anodic

dissolution, ideal for complex geometries and hard-to-machine conductive materials with
minimal tool wear and stress-free surfaces.
 • Electrochemical Grinding (ECG): A hybrid process that combines ECM with conventional
grinding. The grinding wheel acts as a cathode while mechanical abrasion assists in removing
passive oxide layers, improving surface finish and material removal efficiency.

• Electrochemical Jet Drilling (EJD): A localized variant of ECM, where a high-velocity

electrolyte jet is directed at the workpiece surface, enabling precision micro-hole drilling and
patterning in conductive materials.

Electro-Thermal Energy-Based Non-Conventional Machining Processes:

Electro-thermal machining processes utilize thermal energy generated through electrical means to
remove material from the workpiece. In these processes, a concentrated form of heat is applied to a
localized region of the work surface, causing material removal through melting, fusion, or vaporization.
These methods are particularly effective for machining extremely hard, brittle, or high-strength
temperature-resistant (HSTR) materials, and are commonly used for micro-machining and complex
geometries where mechanical contact is undesirable.

The major electro-thermal machining processes include:

• Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM): Also known as spark erosion, EDM removes
material through a series of rapidly recurring electrical discharges (sparks) between an electrode
and the conductive workpiece, both submerged in a dielectric fluid. The high-temperature
sparks locally melt and vaporize the material.

• Laser Beam Machining (LBM): A high-energy laser beam is focused on a small area of the
workpiece, generating intense heat that melts or vaporizes the material. It is ideal for precision
cutting, drilling, and micro-machining of metals, ceramics, and composites.

• Electron Beam Machining (EBM): This process uses a focused beam of high-velocity
electrons, typically under vacuum, to deliver thermal energy to a minute area, leading to
material removal through melting and vaporization. EBM is suitable for extremely fine and
precise machining, especially in aerospace and microelectronics.

Chemical Energy-Based Non-Conventional Machining Processes:

Chemical machining processes utilize controlled chemical reactions to remove material from specific
areas of a workpiece. The process involves selective etching, wherein the areas to be machined are
exposed to a chemical etchant, while the remaining surfaces are protected using a maskant or resist.
Material removal occurs through chemical dissolution, without the application of mechanical or thermal
energy. These processes are well-suited for machining thin components, intricate patterns, or delicate
parts that require minimal mechanical stress.

The main chemical machining processes include:

 • Chemical Milling (CHM): In this process, large and shallow cavities or contours are produced
by masking selected areas of the surface and then exposing the remaining areas to chemical
etchants. CHM is commonly used for weight reduction in aerospace components, removing
surface defects, and producing contoured profiles in sheet metals.

• Photochemical Machining (PCM): Also known as photochemical etching, this technique

combines photographic imaging with chemical etching. A photoresist is applied and patterned
using UV light exposure, followed by selective etching of exposed regions. PCM enables high-
precision fabrication of intricate and miniature components, such as electronic parts,
microfilters, and decorative items.

Hybrid Non-conventional Machining Processes:

Hybrid machining processes (HMPs) represent a significant advancement in modern manufacturing,

where two or more distinct machining principles are strategically combined to enhance performance
characteristics such as material removal rate (MRR), surface integrity, dimensional accuracy, and tool
life. The motivation behind hybridization is to leverage the advantages of individual processes while
mitigating their inherent limitations when used in isolation.

Hybrid Chemical and Electrochemical Processes:

These processes primarily rely on chemical dissolution (CD) or electrochemical dissolution (ECD)
mechanisms, supported by auxiliary physical or mechanical actions for enhanced performance.
Examples include:

• Electrochemical Grinding (ECG): Combines ECD with mechanical grinding to remove

passivation layers, improving machining efficiency and surface finish.

• Electrochemical Superfinishing (ECS): Enhances surface texture by combining ECD with

finishing actions.

• Laser-Assisted Electrochemical Machining (ECML): Integrates local laser heating with ECM,
increasing reaction kinetics and MRR.

• Ultrasonic-Assisted Electrochemical Machining (USMEC): Applies high-frequency ultrasonic

vibrations to improve electrolyte flushing and depassivation.

• Electrochemical Buffing (ECB): Uses fluid jet-induced mechanical agitation to assist the
electrochemical dissolution process.

Hybrid Thermal Machining Processes:

In these processes, thermal energy is the primary mode of material removal, which is augmented with
electrochemical (ECD), mechanical abrasion (MA), or ultrasonic (US) mechanisms. Examples include:
 • Electrochemical Discharge Grinding (ECDG): Combines electrodischarge erosion (EDE) with
electrochemical dissolution and abrasive grinding, resulting in higher MRR and improved
surface quality.

• Laser-Enhanced EDM (LEEDM): Integrates laser heating with spark erosion to enhance crater
formation and reduce tool wear.

• Triplex Hybrid Processes: Combine three actions—EDE, ECD, and mechanical abrasion (e.g.,
EDE + ECM + Grinding)—to create highly efficient, multi-mode hybrid systems.

SELECTION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES:

The correct selection of a non-traditional machining method requires evaluating multiple factors to
ensure suitability, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness for the given application. Key aspects include:

Physical Parameters of the Process: This involves understanding the energy source (mechanical,
electrical, thermal, or chemical), material removal mechanism, and compatibility with the workpiece
material. For example, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) uses mechanical erosion with high-velocity
abrasive particles, making it suitable for brittle materials such as glass and ceramics. Electrical
Discharge Machining (EDM) uses thermal erosion from electrical sparks, making it ideal for conductive
materials like hardened steel.

Shape to be Machined: The chosen process should be capable of producing the desired shape, whether
it involves simple profiles, complex contours, internal cavities, or intricate patterns. For example, AJM
is suitable for cutting intricate shapes and fine holes in brittle materials. Laser Beam Machining (LBM)
can produce very fine slots and complex outlines with minimal heat-affected zones.

Process Capability: This refers to the achievable dimensional accuracy, surface finish, material
removal rate (MRR), and suitability for specific materials. For example, AJM offers high accuracy for
delicate operations like etching and deburring, but its MRR is relatively low. Ultrasonic Machining
(USM) can achieve good dimensional accuracy in hard, brittle materials but is slower compared to
processes like EDM.

Economics of the Process: Economic factors include the initial equipment cost, operating costs
(energy, abrasives, consumables), tool life, maintenance requirements, and cost per part. For example,
AJM has low tooling costs and is economical for low-volume, precision work. In contrast, EDM has
higher running costs but becomes economical for producing complex, high-precision dies in bulk.

APPLICATIONS OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:

• Non-conventional machining processes are employed for machining hard and difficult-to-cut
materials such as superalloys, nimonic alloys, carbides, and heat-resistant steels, which are
widely used in various engineering applications.
 • These processes are suitable for manufacturing very thin and fragile components, as well as
complex geometrical profiles, with high surface finish, dimensional accuracy, and tight
tolerances. Such capabilities make them particularly valuable in aerospace, automotive,
nuclear, mining, and other advanced industrial sectors.

• Non-conventional machining is used to shape hard cutting tools with intricate geometries,
ensuring high precision and repeatability.

• Beyond engineering applications, non-conventional machining techniques are applied in fields

such as jewelry manufacturing for watch and timer movements, removal of glue and paint from
leather artifacts and paintings, and engraving of products with alphanumeric codes, barcodes,
logos, symbols, and graphics.

• Additionally, these processes are utilized for machining cavities in forging dies, drilling deep
or irregularly shaped holes, and producing features that are difficult or impossible to achieve
using conventional machining methods.

ADVANTAGES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:

• Capable of machining hard and difficult-to-machine materials, including those with high
strength-to-weight ratios, high hardness, and heat resistance.

• Enables the production of components with complex shapes and intricate geometries.

• Economical for mass production over long operational durations.

• Offers high dimensional accuracy and superior surface finish.

• Produces burr-free surfaces in processes such as Electrochemical Machining (ECM), Electrical

Discharge Machining (EDM), and Chemical Machining (CHM).

• Removes material without mechanical contact between the tool and workpiece in processes
such as ECM, EDM, Laser Beam Machining (LBM), and CHM.

• Material removal rate is independent of the hardness of the workpiece in ECM, LBM, and
EDM.

• Cutting forces remain unaffected by workpiece hardness in ECM, LBM, EDM, and CHM.

• Tool material does not need to be harder than the workpiece in ECM, LBM, EDM, CHM, and
Ultrasonic Machining (USM).

• Minimal or no tool wear in ECM, LBM, and CHM.

• Capable of machining virtually any material, as in LBM.

• Provides stress-free machining in ECM, Electrochemical Grinding (ECG), and CHM.

 • Allows uniform material removal across the entire surface simultaneously in ECM and CHM.

• Ensures superior surface integrity in ECM, CHM, and ECG.

• Suitable for machining intricately shaped, very hard, and fragile materials, such as in USM.

• Facilitates finely focused micromachining.

• Enables micro-hole drilling at shallow entrance angles in EDM, ECM, LBM, and Electron
Beam Machining (EBM).

• Easily integrates with numerical control (NC) and computer-based control systems in ECM,
EDM, LBM, and EBM.

LIMITATIONS OF NON-CONVENTIONAL MACHINING:

• In processes such as Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) and Electrochemical Machining

(ECM), both the workpiece and the tool must be electrically conductive.

• In Laser Beam Machining (LBM), the achievable depth of cut is limited.

• Processes such as EDM, LBM, and Electron Beam Machining (EBM) may produce a recast
layer or heat-affected zone (HAZ), which can adversely affect surface integrity.

• The compatibility of the machining process with the metallurgical condition of the workpiece
material should be evaluated prior to its use for production applications.

• Taper may occur in the sidewalls of holes or cavities, particularly in EDM and LBM.

• While these limitations exist, many can be mitigated or controlled through optimized process
parameters, enabling the advantages of non-conventional machining to be achieved without
compromising product quality.
 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

Introduction:

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) is a non-traditional material removal process in which a high-velocity
stream of abrasive particles, such as aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) or silicon carbide (SiC), is propelled by
compressed air or gas through a fine nozzle (0.3–0.5 mm diameter) onto the workpiece surface. The
material is removed primarily through mechanical abrasion caused by the impact of the abrasive
particles. Unlike conventional sandblasting, AJM employs smaller abrasive particles and a more
precisely controlled delivery system, enabling higher precision and accuracy. AJM is widely applied for
cutting, cleaning, peening, deburring, deflashing, and etching operations, particularly in the machining
of superhard materials and advanced composites of varying thicknesses.

Principle:

The principle of AJM (depicted in Figure 3) is based on the mechanical erosion of material through the
high-velocity impact of fine abrasive particles. In this process, a stream of abrasive grains—typically
aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) or silicon carbide (SiC)—is accelerated by a high-pressure carrier gas such as
air, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide. The abrasive–gas mixture is directed through a small-diameter nozzle
(0.3–0.5 mm) towards the workpiece surface at velocities ranging from 150 to 300 m/s.

Upon impact, the kinetic energy of the abrasive particles is transferred to the surface, causing micro-
cutting and brittle fracture of the material. Material removal occurs through a combination of chipping,
micro-cracking, and dislodging of surface particles. The process is purely mechanical, with no thermal
or chemical interaction between the tool and the workpiece, making it suitable for machining heat-
sensitive and brittle materials.

Figure 3: Principle of Abrasive Jet Machining

Equipment and Process of Material Removal in AJM:

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), fine abrasive particles are propelled at high velocity to impinge on
the workpiece surface, resulting in material removal. The abrasive jet is carried by a pressurized carrier
gas—typically compressed air—which transports the particles to the machining zone. The high-velocity
stream is produced by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas into kinetic energy. A precisely
designed nozzle directs the abrasive jet towards the workpiece, allowing control over the stand-off
distance and impingement angle to achieve the desired machining performance.

Material removal in AJM occurs through a combination of micro-cutting and brittle fracture
mechanisms, making the process particularly effective for brittle and hard materials. Compressed air at
approximately 5 bar is commonly used as the carrier gas, although gases such as carbon dioxide may
also be employed directly from a cylinder. Oxygen is generally avoided due to safety concerns. The
carrier gas first passes through a pressure regulator to ensure the required working pressure, followed
by a series of filters to remove oil vapours and particulate contaminants.

Subsequently, the gas enters a closed mixing chamber, where abrasive particles from a hopper are
introduced through a metallic sieve. The sieve is vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker, with the
amplitude and frequency of vibration regulating the abrasive feed rate (typically around 15 g/min). The
abrasive–gas mixture then flows through an electromagnetic on–off valve into the machining chamber.
The process enclosure is designed to contain both the abrasive and the removed material, ensuring
operational safety and environmental compliance.

During operation, abrasive particles exit the nozzle at velocities of approximately 200 m/s and impact
the workpiece, which can be traversed relative to the jet to produce the desired cut or feature. The
schematic layout of the AJM system, including key components such as the gas supply, pressure
regulator, mixing chamber, abrasive feeder, and nozzle, is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Schematic layout of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

Main Components of AJM:

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) comprises several key subsystems that work in coordination to achieve
precise material removal. These include the gas propulsion system, abrasive feeder, machining chamber,
nozzle assembly, and abrasive materials, each described as follows:

1) Gas Propulsion System: The gas propulsion system supplies clean, dry, and contaminant-free
propellant to accelerate abrasive particles. Common carrier gases include compressed air,
nitrogen, and carbon dioxide, supplied either from a gas cylinder or an air compressor. When
using a compressor, an air filter–cum–dryer is employed to prevent moisture or oil
contamination of the abrasive powder. The carrier gas must be non-toxic, cost-effective, readily
available, and should not excessively disperse upon discharge from the nozzle. Typical
propellant consumption is approximately 0.008 m³/min at a nozzle pressure of 5 bar. The
abrasive flow rate varies from 2–4 g/min for fine machining to 10–20 g/min for cutting
operations.

2) Abrasive Feeder: The abrasive feeder regulates the delivery of abrasive particles into the
mixing chamber. The filtered carrier gas enters the mixing chamber, where abrasives are
introduced through a vibrating sieve operating at a frequency of 50–60 Hz. The amplitude of
vibration determines the abrasive feed rate, thereby controlling the mixing ratio. The abrasive–
gas mixture is then directed to the nozzle, where it is accelerated and projected onto the
workpiece surface at high velocity.

3) Machining Chamber: The machining chamber is an enclosed unit designed to prevent

excessive dispersion of abrasive particles into the surrounding environment, thereby
maintaining safe operating conditions. A vacuum dust collector is integrated into the system to
remove airborne particulates. Special precautions are taken when machining toxic materials to
ensure effective dust extraction and operator safety.

4) AJM Nozzle: The nozzle, typically fabricated from wear-resistant materials such as tungsten
carbide or sapphire, plays a critical role in directing the abrasive jet. Sapphire nozzles have a
typical lifespan of approximately 300 hours, whereas tungsten carbide nozzles last about 20–
30 hours under normal operation. Nozzles may have circular or rectangular cross-sections and
can be designed with straight or angled heads. They are engineered to minimize pressure losses
due to bends or friction. However, as the nozzle wears, jet divergence increases, resulting in
stray cutting and reduced accuracy.

5) Abrasives: Common abrasives used in AJM include aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), silicon carbide
(SiC), glass beads, crushed glass, and sodium bicarbonate. The selection of abrasive type
depends on factors such as the desired material removal rate (MRR), the nature of the workpiece
material, and the required machining accuracy.
Process Parameters and Machining Characteristics of AJM:

The performance of AJM depends on several process parameters, each influencing the material removal
rate (MRR), surface finish, and overall machining efficiency. The major process parameters are as
follows:

1) Type of Abrasive

The selection of abrasive depends on the type of machining operation (e.g., roughing or finishing),
workpiece material, and cost considerations. Sharp, irregular particles are preferred for effective cutting,
while finer particles are suitable for cleaning, etching, deburring, and polishing. Aluminum oxide and
silicon carbide are widely used for cutting, whereas sodium bicarbonate, dolomite, and glass beads are
preferred for surface finishing operations. Abrasive reuse is discouraged, as particle wear reduces
cutting efficiency, and contamination may clog the nozzle.

Material: Common abrasives include aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃), silicon carbide (SiC), and glass beads.

Shape: Abrasives may be irregular or spherical.

Size: Typically ranges between 10–50 μm.

Mass Flow Rate: Between 2–20 g/min.

2) Carrier Gas

The carrier gas should be non-toxic, inexpensive, easily available, and should not excessively disperse
upon discharge. Compressed air is the most common choice due to its low cost and availability. The gas
must be cleaned and dried before use to avoid moisture or oil contamination of the abrasives.

Composition: Air, carbon dioxide (CO₂), or nitrogen (N₂).

Density: Air ≈ 1.3 kg/m³.

Velocity: 500–700 m/s.

Pressure: 2–10 bar.

Flow Rate: 5–30 l/min.

3) Abrasive Jet

Velocity: 100–300 m/s.

Mixing Ratio: Mass flow ratio of abrasive to carrier gas.

Stand-Off Distance (SOD): 0.5–5 mm.

Impingement Angle: 60°–90°.

4) Abrasive Grain Size

Finer grains are less effective in cutting due to their reduced irregularity and tendency to agglomerate,
which may block the nozzle. The optimal range for most applications is 10–50 μm. Coarser grains are
used for cutting operations, while finer grains are suitable for polishing and deburring. For example,
erosion of glass by silicon carbide particles (25 μm) requires a minimum jet velocity of approximately
150 m/s.

5) Stand-Off Distance (SOD)

SOD is defined as the distance between the nozzle face and the workpiece surface.

Larger SOD increases jet spreading, reducing accuracy.

MRR and penetration rate increase with SOD up to an optimum value, after which they decline.

Smaller SOD improves dimensional accuracy, reduces kerf width, and minimizes groove taper. Larger
SOD is preferred for light operations such as cleaning and frosting.

6) Nozzle

Material: Tungsten carbide (WC) or sapphire.

Internal Diameter: 0.2–0.8 mm.

Life: 10–300 hours depending on material and operating conditions.

Key Machining Characteristics in AJM

• Material Removal Rate (MRR): Measured in mm³/min or g/min, influenced by abrasive type,
grain size, jet velocity, and SOD.

• Machining Accuracy: Affected by jet divergence, nozzle wear, and SOD.

• Nozzle Life: Determined by nozzle material, abrasive hardness, and operating conditions.

Table 1 summarizes the process parameters that significantly affect the MRR, surface finish, and overall
machining efficiency, along with their effects.

Table 1. Process Parameters in Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) and Their Effects

Parameter Typical Range / Value Effect on MRR & Accuracy

Type of Abrasive Al₂O₃, SiC (cutting); Glass Harder abrasives increase MRR; softer
beads, NaHCO₃ (finishing) abrasives improve surface finish.
Abrasive Shape Irregular / Spherical Irregular shapes enhance cutting ability;
spherical shapes yield smoother surfaces.
 Abrasive Size 10–50 μm Coarse grains → higher MRR but rougher
finish; fine grains → lower MRR but better
finish.
Abrasive Mass 2–20 g/min Higher flow rate increases MRR up to an
Flow Rate optimum; excessive rate may lower jet velocity.
Carrier Gas Type Air, CO₂, N₂ Affects operating cost, availability, and safety;
air is most economical.
Carrier Gas 2–10 bar Higher pressure increases jet velocity and
Pressure MRR, but excessive pressure causes abrasive
breakage.
Carrier Gas 500–700 m/s Higher velocity increases kinetic energy,
Velocity enhancing MRR.
Abrasive Jet 100–300 m/s Directly proportional to MRR; excessive
Velocity velocity may reduce nozzle life.
Mixing Ratio Controlled via sieve vibration Optimal ratio ensures balanced abrasive
amplitude concentration and velocity.
Stand-Off 0.5–5 mm Smaller SOD improves accuracy; larger SOD
Distance (SOD) increases MRR up to a point, then decreases.
Impingement 60°–90° ~90° optimal for brittle fracture; ~60° optimal
Angle for ductile materials.
Nozzle Material WC (20–30 h life), Sapphire Harder materials increase nozzle life and
(~300 h life) maintain accuracy.
Nozzle Diameter 0.2–0.8 mm Smaller diameter → higher accuracy; larger
diameter → higher MRR but lower precision.

Process Parameters Influencing MRR in AJM:

In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), the Metal Removal Rate (MRR) refers to the volume of material
removed from a workpiece per unit time. Several process parameters significantly affect MRR, as
outlined below:

Effect of abrasive flow rate and grain size on MRR: It is clear from the figure that at a particular
pressure MRR increase with increase of abrasive flow rate and is influenced by size of abrasive
particles. But after reaching optimum value, MRR decreases with further increase of abrasive flowrate.
This is because excessive abrasive concentration leads to a decrease in particle velocity, as the available
kinetic energy from the carrier gas is distributed among a greater number of particles. Notably, when
the mixing ratio is maintained constant, MRR exhibits a uniform increase with abrasive mass flow rate.
Effect of exit gas velocity and abrasive particle density: The velocity of carrier gas conveying the
abrasive particles changes considerably with the change of abrasive particle density as indicated in
figure. The exit velocity of gas can be increased to critical velocity when the internal gas pressure is
nearly twice the pressure at exit of nozzle for the abrasive particle density is zero. If the density of
abrasive particles is gradually increased exit velocity will go on decreasing for the
same pressure condition. It is due to fact that Kinetic energy of gas is utilized for
transporting the abrasive particle.

Effect of Mixing ratio on MRR: The mixing ratio is defined as the ratio of abrasive mass flow rate to
carrier gas mass flow rate. Increasing the mixing ratio initially enhances MRR up to an optimal point,
beyond which MRR declines due to the excess abrasive content reduces carrier gas velocity, lowering
particle kinetic energy and decreasing MRR.
Effect of Stand-off Distance (SOD): Stand-Off Distance (SOD) is defined as the gap between the
nozzle exit and the surface of the workpiece. It is a critical parameter in Abrasive Jet Machining that
significantly influences both the material removal rate (MRR) and the machining accuracy.

An increase in SOD initially enhances the MRR and penetration rate due to improved particle impact
dispersion. However, beyond an optimal value, further increase in SOD causes a decline in both MRR
and penetration. This decline is attributed to the loss of kinetic energy in the abrasive jet due to
divergence and air resistance over longer distances.

Excessively large SOD results in jet flaring, which leads to poor dimensional accuracy, increased kerf
width, and greater taper in the machined groove. Conversely, reducing SOD improves machining
precision by minimizing jet spread, reducing kerf width, and controlling taper.

For delicate operations such as surface cleaning, frosting, and light deburring, a relatively large SOD—
typically in the range of 12.5 mm to 75 mm—is preferred, as it allows for a more uniform and gentle
material removal action.

Gas Pressure: The pressure of the carrier gas (air, nitrogen, or CO₂) is directly proportional to MRR.
Higher pressures increase the kinetic energy of the abrasive particles, enhancing their cutting capability.
Velocity of Abrasive Particles: Higher particle velocities increase the kinetic impact energy, thereby
improving MRR. The velocity is influenced by carrier gas pressure and nozzle design.

Material Removal Models in AJM

The material removal mechanism in AJM differs depending on whether the work material is brittle or
ductile. Theoretical models help estimate the Material Removal Rate (MRR) based on the kinetic energy
of abrasive particles and the material response to these impacts.

To develop these models, the following assumptions are made:

1) Abrasive particles are spherical and behave as rigid bodies.

2) Kinetic energy of abrasive particles is fully used in removing material.

3) For brittle materials, failure occurs due to brittle fracture, and the removed volume is assumed
to be a hemispherical crater.

4) For ductile materials, the material is removed primarily by plastic deformation, and the
removed volume equals the indentation volume created by the abrasive particle.

Let the abrasive particles are assumed to be spherical in shape having diameter 𝑑𝑔 , and indentation
depth be 𝛿. Using simple geometry, the radius of the hemispherical fracture (crater) is calculated as:
Problem 1 : Estimate the MRR in AJM of a brittle material with flow strength of 4
GPA. The abrasive flow rate is 2 gm/min, velocity is 200m/s, density of abrasive
is 3 gm/sec.
Applications of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

1) Glass Treatment: AJM is widely employed for abrading and frosting glass surfaces, offering
a more economical alternative to conventional methods such as etching or grinding.
2) Surface Cleaning: The process is effective for removing metallic smears from ceramics, oxide
layers from metals, and unwanted resistive coatings from electronic components.
3) Microfabrication in Electronics: AJM finds extensive use in the electronics industry for
operations such as drilling of glass wafers, deburring of plastic components, fabrication of
nylon and Teflon parts, permanent marking on rubber stencils, and cutting of thin titanium foils.
4) Deflashing and Engraving: The technique is suitable for deflashing small castings and
engraving identification numbers on toughened glass, such as those used in automotive
windows.
5) Machining of Fragile Components: AJM is capable of precisely cutting thin and brittle
materials, including semiconductors like germanium and silicon, without inducing thermal
damage.
6) Register Trimming and Micro-Module Fabrication: The process is applicable for register
trimming and the fabrication of micro-modules used in electrical contacts and semiconductor
manufacturing.
7) Versatile Machining Capabilities: AJM is used for a variety of operations such as drilling,
cutting, deburring, etching, and polishing of hard and brittle materials.
8) Machining of Heat-Sensitive Materials: It is particularly suitable for machining brittle and
thermally sensitive materials, including glass, quartz, sapphire, mica, ceramics, germanium,
silicon, and gallium.
9) Precision Deburring: The technique is effective for deburring small features such as holes in
hypodermic needles and narrow milled slots in hard metallic components.

Advantages of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

1) Superior Surface Finish: AJM is capable of achieving high-quality surface finishes, which
are influenced by the size of abrasive particles used.
• For particle size ~10 µm, surface roughness ranges from 0.152 to 0.203 µm.
• For 25–27 µm, roughness ranges from 0.355 to 0.675 µm.
• For 50 µm, roughness increases to 0.965 to 1.27 µm.
2) Minimal Subsurface Damage: The process results in a shallow damage depth, typically
around 2.5 µm, making it suitable for precision machining.
3) Cool Cutting Action: As AJM is a non-thermal process, it is ideal for machining delicate and
heat-sensitive materials without inducing thermal stresses or altering material properties.
4) Vibration-Free Operation: The absence of direct contact between the tool and the workpiece
eliminates chatter and vibrations, enhancing machining stability and dimensional accuracy.
 5) Low Capital and Operational Cost: The system is relatively inexpensive to set up, operate,
and maintain, making it accessible for small-scale and precision manufacturing.
6) Machining of Thin Brittle Materials: AJM is highly effective for machining thin sections of
hard and brittle materials such as germanium, mica, silicon, glass, and ceramics without
inducing cracks or damage.
7) Capability for Intricate Machining: The process can produce holes of complex and intricate
geometries in hard materials, which are often challenging to machine using conventional
methods.

Limitations of Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

1) Low Material Removal Rate (MRR): AJM exhibits limited productivity due to its inherently
low MRR. For example, the MRR while machining glass is approximately 40 grams per minute,
making it unsuitable for high-volume material removal tasks.
2) Abrasive Embedding in Soft Materials: When machining soft materials such as elastomers
or plastics, abrasive particles may become embedded in the surface, potentially affecting the
quality and integrity of the final product.
3) Loss of Dimensional Accuracy: The divergence of the abrasive jet causes tapering of holes,
leading to reduced dimensional accuracy, especially during deep or intricate cuts.
4) Stray Cutting Effects: Due to the uncontrolled scattering of abrasive particles, stray cutting is
often observed, which may damage adjacent areas of the workpiece.
5) Requirement for Dust Collection System: AJM generates fine particulate matter that can pose
environmental and health hazards. Hence, an effective dust collection system is essential to
ensure safe operation and prevent atmospheric pollution.
6) Limited Nozzle Life: The nozzle, typically made of tungsten carbide or sapphire, is subject to
erosion and has a limited operational life—approximately 300 hours for sapphire and 20–30
hours for tungsten carbide.
7) Non-Reusability of Abrasives: The abrasive particles lose their cutting effectiveness after
impact due to edge dulling. Additionally, finer fragments may clog the nozzle, making abrasive
reuse impractical.
8) Nozzle Damage at Short Stand-Off Distances: Using very short stand-off distances (SOD)
for precision cutting can lead to accelerated wear or damage to the nozzle due to high particle
impact intensity.
 WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)

Introduction:

Water Jet Machining (WJM) is a non-traditional machining process that removes material from a
workpiece by directing a high-velocity stream of water onto the surface to be machined. The process
relies on the erosive action of the high-pressure water jet to cut, shape, or profile a wide range of
materials without generating heat-affected zones, thereby preserving the thermal integrity of the work
material. This technique is particularly effective for cutting soft materials such as rubber and plastics,
and, when combined with abrasives, it can cut harder materials, including ceramics, metals, and
composites.

The fundamental element of the WJM process is the high-speed water jet, which can attain velocities
of 540-1400 m/s. Upon impact with the surface of the workpiece, the kinetic energy of the water stream
generates a focused erosive force, resulting in the controlled and efficient removal of material. The jet
functions similarly to a mechanical saw, creating a narrow groove in the material as it progresses.
Importantly, WJM does not induce thermal damage, mechanical stresses, or significant environmental
or operator hazards, making it a true cold-cutting and environmentally sustainable machining method.

Working Principle:

The principle of Water Jet Machining (WJM) is based on converting the kinetic energy of a high-
pressure, high-velocity water jet into localized pressure energy upon impact with the workpiece surface.
In this process, a focused jet of water—typically pressurized between 150 to 1000 MPa and travelling
at speeds ranging from 540 to 1400 m/s (which may exceed the speed of sound)—is directed at the
material to be machined. The water jet's flow rate generally ranges between 0.5 to 2.5 liters per minute,
depending on the specific application and system configuration.

When the high-speed water jet strikes the surface, its kinetic energy is rapidly diminished to zero. This
energy is then converted into pressure energy concentrated at a very small area. If the localized pressure
induced by the jet exceeds the material's surface strength, the surface undergoes erosion, resulting in
the removal of material and the formation of a cavity or groove. This erosion continues as the jet moves
across the surface, enabling precise cutting or machining without thermal effects.

While pure water is commonly used as the working fluid, various additives such as alcohols, oil-based
products, or glycerol may be incorporated into the fluid to enhance specific properties like viscosity,
surface tension, or lubrication, thereby improving the overall performance and efficiency of the process.

Equipment and Process of Material Removal in AJM:

Water Jet Machining (WJM) is a non-conventional machining process that removes material through a
high-velocity jet of water, often mixed with abrasives in the case of Abrasive Water Jet Machining
(AWJM). The process begins with the fluid supply, which provides clean water that passes through a
mixer and filter to ensure it is free of impurities. The filtered water is then sent to an accumulator, which
stores it under moderate pressure, stabilizes the flow, and ensures a steady supply. From there, the water
enters a pump, which delivers it to the intensifier. The intensifier is a critical component that
dramatically increases water pressure using a hydraulic piston system, typically raising it to ultra-high
levels (up to 4000 bar or more). This hydraulic power is supplied by the hydraulic unit, which converts
electrical energy into hydraulic pressure. A controller monitors and manages the system's operations,
such as pressure regulation and timing, while a valve is used to start or stop the high-pressure water
flow. The pressurized water is then directed to a nozzle, a small orifice made of hard materials like
sapphire or tungsten carbide, which converts the pressure into a high-velocity jet. This jet strikes the
workpiece with tremendous force, eroding the surface material via mechanical erosion. If abrasives are
mixed into the jet, they enhance the cutting capability, especially for hard materials. The removed
material and used water are collected via a drain, completing the cycle. Overall, WJM offers precise,
cold cutting without thermal distortion, making it suitable for a wide range of materials, including
metals, ceramics, glass, and composites. Figure shows the schematic diagram of the WJM.

Main Components of WJM:

Water Jet Machining (WJM) comprises several key subsystems that work in coordination to achieve
precise material removal. These include:

1) Hydraulic pump: The hydraulic pump in a water jet machining system is typically powered by
an electric motor ranging from 15 to 37 kilowatts (kW). It supplies hydraulic oil at pressures that
can reach up to 117 bars. This pressurized oil is used to drive a plunger pump known as an
intensifier, which significantly increases the pressure of the water used in the cutting process. The
hydraulic pump plays a crucial role by offering full operational flexibility, making it suitable for
 both water jet cutting and cleaning applications. Moreover, it is capable of supporting single or
multiple cutting stations simultaneously, thereby enhancing overall machining productivity.

2) Intensifier: The intensifier is a key component in the water jet machining system, responsible
for converting the energy of low-pressure hydraulic fluid into ultra-high-pressure water required
for effective material cutting. Water, initially supplied at a relatively low pressure of
approximately 4 bar, enters the small cylinder of the intensifier. Through a series of mechanical
processes, the intensifier raises this pressure to around 3800 bar, delivering it through an
accumulator for further use. The central section of the intensifier is powered by hydraulic fluid,
which drives a piston mechanism. A limit switch located at each end of the piston’s travel sends
signals to the electronic controls, triggering the directional control valve to reverse the piston’s
motion. The intensifier features a plunger on either side of the piston, allowing it to generate
pressure in both directions—while one side performs the inlet stroke, the opposite side produces
ultra-high-pressure output. During the inlet stroke, filtered water flows into the high-pressure
cylinder via a check valve assembly. Upon piston reversal, the water is compressed and
discharged at ultra-high pressure, enabling efficient and precise machining.
3) Accumulator: The accumulator in a water jet machining system serves as a pressure vessel
designed to store high-pressure water generated by the intensifier. At the intensifier’s output
pressure, water undergoes approximately 15% compression, resulting in a temporary reduction
in flow at the start of each piston stroke. The accumulator compensates for this effect by
maintaining a continuous and steady flow of high-pressure water to the nozzle. Its function is
critical in avoiding pulsations, eliminating pressure fluctuations, and ensuring that the final output
remains smooth and stable. In doing so, it keeps output pressure variations within a narrow range,
typically not exceeding ±5%, thereby enhancing the precision and consistency of the machining
process.

4) High-pressure Tubing: The high-pressure tubing in a water jet machining system is responsible
for transporting pressurized water from the intensifier or accumulator to the cutting head. These
tubes typically have diameters ranging from 6 to 14 mm and are constructed from rigid materials,
as no flexible tubing is currently available that can withstand pressures exceeding 2000 bar.
Despite the use of rigid tubing, the system is designed to permit flexible movement of the cutting
head, enabling effective positioning during operation. The cutting action is controlled either
manually or via a remote-control valve specifically engineered to handle ultra-high-pressure
water flow, ensuring both operational precision and safety.

5) Jet Cutting Nozzle: The jet cutting nozzle in a water jet machining system function to convert
ultra-high-pressure water, typically around 4000 bar, into a high-velocity jet with speeds ranging
from approximately 400 to 1400 m/s. It produces a coherent and focused water stream to ensure
optimum cutting performance. Nozzles are manufactured from extremely hard and wear-resistant
materials such as tungsten carbide, synthetic sapphire, or diamond, enabling them to withstand
the extreme operating conditions. However, they remain susceptible to damage caused by dirt
particles and mineral deposits on the orifice, which can result from erosive water hardness. To
extend nozzle life, multistage filtration is often employed to ensure water purity. The diameter of
the nozzle orifice generally ranges from 0.07 to 0.5 mm, although in certain applications it may
be as large as 1.0 mm.
 6) Catcher: The drain or catcher in a water jet machining system serves as a reservoir for collecting
machining debris carried by the water jet after the cutting process. In addition to debris collection,
it absorbs the residual kinetic energy of the jet, which can account for approximately 90% of the
total jet energy after cutting. Without proper containment, the breakup of the high-speed jet into
mist and droplets in an open area can generate noise levels as high as 130 dBA. The catcher plays
a crucial role in reducing this noise by facilitating the deceleration of the jet from supersonic
speeds—around Mach 3—to subsonic levels. To further minimize noise and ensure safe
operation, tube-type or slot-type catchers are commonly positioned directly beneath the cutting
point.

Process Parameters Affecting Water Jet Machining (WJM):

The efficiency, precision, and overall performance of Water Jet Machining (WJM) are determined by
several process parameters. Among them, the characteristics of the jet nozzle, jet fluid, and workpiece
play a crucial role in governing material removal rates, surface quality, and machining capability.
1) Jet Nozzle: The jet nozzle’s standoff distance—defined as the gap between the nozzle (typically
0.1 to 0.3 mm in diameter) and the workpiece surface—generally ranges from 2.5 to 6 mm in
most applications. In certain specialized operations, such as machining printed circuit board
materials, the standoff distance can be increased to between 13 and 19 mm. However, a greater
standoff distance typically results in a reduced depth of cut due to energy dissipation of the jet
stream. In the case of fiber-reinforced plastics, research indicates that higher machining rates
combined with smaller nozzle diameters can increase the width of the damaged layer. Therefore,
optimizing nozzle size and standoff distance is critical for balancing cutting efficiency and
surface integrity.

2) Jet Fluid: The jet fluid, usually water, is pressurized in the range of 150 to 1000 MPa to deliver
between 8 and 80 kW of cutting power. For a given nozzle diameter, increasing the pressure raises
the energy available for material removal, thereby increasing the achievable depth of cut. The
velocity of the water jet generally ranges from 540 to 1400 m/s. Higher pressures enhance cutting
quality by widening the jet diameter and allowing for lower traverse speeds, enabling the
machining of thicker and denser materials. The fluid must exhibit low viscosity to minimize
energy losses, and it should be noncorrosive, nontoxic, cost-effective, and easily available. Pure
water is commonly used, especially for cutting alloy steels, although abrasive particles may be
introduced for harder materials.
3) Workpiece: The machinability of the workpiece is highly dependent on its mechanical
properties. Brittle materials tend to fracture under the high-velocity jet impact, while ductile
materials respond more favorably, allowing for smoother cuts. Typical material thicknesses
processed using WJM range from 0.8 mm to over 25 mm. The achievable cutting rate is
influenced not only by thickness but also by material density and structural composition, with
harder and denser materials generally requiring slower traverse speeds and higher pressures for
effective machining.
Applications:

• WJM is used on metals, paper, cloth, leather, rubber, plastics, food, and ceramics.

• It is a versatile and cost-effective cutting process that can be used as an alternative to traditional
machining methods.

• It eliminates heat-affected zones, toxic fumes, recast layers, work hardening and thermal
stresses.

• It is the most flexible and effective cleaning solution available for a variety of industrial needs.

• In general, the cut surface has a sandblast appearance.

• Moreover, harder materials exhibit a better edge finish.

• Typical surface finishes range from 1.6 μm Root Mean Square (RMS) to very coarse, depending
on the application.

• Tolerances are in the range of ± 25 μm on thin material.

• Both the produced surface roughness and tolerance depend on the machining speed.

Advantages:

• It has multidirectional cutting capacity.

• No heat is produced.

• Cuts can be started at any location without the need for predrilled holes.

• Wetting of the workpiece material is minimal.

 • There is no deflection to the rest of the workpiece.

• The burr produced is minimal.

• The tool does not wear and, therefore, does not need sharpening.

• The process is environmentally safe.

• Hazardous airborne dust contamination and waste disposal problems that are common when
using other cleaning methods are eliminated.

• There is multiple head processing.

• Simple fixturing eliminates costly and complicated tooling, which reduces turnaround time and
lowers the cost.

• Grinding and polishing are eliminated, reducing secondary operation costs.

• The narrow kerf allows tight nesting when multiple parts are cut from a single blank.

• It is ideal for roughing out material for near-net shape.

• It is ideal for laser reflective materials such as copper and aluminium.

• It allows for more accurate cutting of soft material.

• It cuts through very thick material such as 383 mm in titanium and 307 mm in Inconel.

Limitations:

• Very thick parts cannot be cut with water jet cutting and still hold dimensional accuracy. If the
part is too thick, the jet may dissipate some, causing it to cut on a diagonal, or to have a wider
cut at the bottom of the part than the top. It can also cause a rough wave pattern on the cut
surface.

• It is not suitable for mass production because of high maintenance requirements.

Determination of Water Jet Velocity:

For steady, incompressible, frictionless flow between two points:

 wVw2
pw + +  w gh = constant
2

 wVw2  wVwj2
pw + +  w gh1 = pat + +  w gh1
2 2

1
pw − pat =  w (Vwj2 − Vw2 ) +  w g ( h1 − h2 )
2
 For pat pw ;Vwj2 Vw2 ; h1  h2

1
pw =  wVwj2
2

2 pw
 Vwj =
w

Determination of Material Removal Rate (MRR):

MRR depends on the reactive power of the water jet, i.e.,

MRR  Pwj

Reactive power is equal to the multiplication of pressure (Pw) and volume flow rate (Qw). Therefore,

pwj = Pw  Qw

The volume flow rate of the water may be expressed as:

Qw = cd Vwj  Aorifice

 2 Pw
Qw = cd  d o2  , where cd is the discharge coefficient of the orifice
4 w

Therefore,

 2 Pw
pwj = Pw  cd  d o2 
4 w

 2 Pw3
 pwj = cd  d o2 
4 w
Material Removal Rate:

MRR  Pwj

1  2 Pw3
 MRR =  cd  d o2 
u 4 w

where u is the specific energy requirement and would be a property of the work material.

Example 1: Determine the MRR of a pure water jet machining system that operates at a pressure of
300 MPa using a nozzle of diameter 0.30 mm. The discharge coefficient of the nozzle is 0.90, and the
density of water is taken as 1000 kg/m³. The work material has a specific energy requirement of 5 J/mm³
for removal, and the cutting efficiency of the process is estimated to be 15%.

Solution 1:
 ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING (AWJM)

Introduction

Abrasive water jet machining is considered a hybrid process that combines the principles of AJM with
those of water jet machining. Unlike AJM, where air is used as the carrier medium, AWJM employs
water to propel the abrasive particles at very high velocities. This makes it particularly suitable for
machining electrically non-conductive and difficult-to-machine materials more efficiently than AJM.

In precise terms, AWJM is a mechanical energy-based material removal process in which abrasives are
mixed with a high-pressure water jet to form a slurry. This high-velocity stream of water and abrasive
particles is directed onto the workpiece surface, causing material removal through erosion. While the
basic mechanism is similar to AJM, the replacement of dry air with water as the carrier medium provides
AWJM with higher efficiency and versatility in handling tough and advanced materials.

Working Principle of AWJM

In abrasive water jet machining, a high-pressure jet of water and a stream of abrasive particles are
supplied from two different directions and mixed inside the abrasive jet nozzle (as shown in the Figure).
The nozzle accelerates this mixture, causing a rapid rise in velocity. As a result, a high-velocity jet of
abrasives carried by water impinges on the surface of the workpiece, leading to material removal.

The mechanism of material removal depends on the nature of the workpiece. For ductile materials,
removal generally occurs by micro-cutting and shear, while for brittle materials, it is dominated by
erosion and crack propagation due to localized stresses. In some cases, material removal may also occur
due to rapid fluctuations in localized stress fields.

An AWJM setup essentially consists of four subsystems:

• Pumping system – generates the ultra-high-pressure water stream.

• Abrasive feed system – delivers abrasive particles to the nozzle.

 • Abrasive water jet nozzle – mixes water and abrasives and converts pressure energy into high-
velocity kinetic energy.

• Catcher – safely dissipates the jet after machining.

This process is versatile and widely used for cutting, drilling, and cleaning hard-to-machine materials.
It is capable of machining ceramics, composites, rocks, and metals with high precision. The typical
operating pressure of the water jet is about 400 MPa, while the jet velocity may reach 900 m/s.
Commonly used abrasives include silica, garnet, and silicon carbide, with harder abrasives employed
for machining hard materials.

Set-up of Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

The setup of an abrasive water jet machining system consists of four essential elements: a pumping
system, an abrasive feed system, an abrasive water jet nozzle, and a catcher. Each component plays a
specific role in ensuring the efficiency and accuracy of the machining process.

1. Pumping system: The pumping system is responsible for generating the ultra-high-pressure water
jet. This is achieved using an intensifier, which pressurizes the water to extremely high levels. A
high-pressure motor is required to drive the intensifier, thereby producing a high-velocity water jet
suitable for machining applications.

2. Abrasive feed system: The abrasive feed system supplies a controlled flow of abrasive particles
to the nozzle. It generally delivers a stream of dry abrasives into the mixing chamber, where the
high-speed water jet creates sufficient suction to draw in the abrasives. The flow rate of abrasives
can be regulated by adjusting the size of the control orifice, thus providing flexibility depending
on the workpiece material and machining requirements.

3. Abrasive water jet nozzle: The abrasive water jet nozzle is one of the most critical components,
as it performs the mixing of water and abrasives to produce a coherent, high-velocity jet. The
nozzle is usually manufactured from very hard materials such as sapphire, tungsten carbide, or
boron carbide to withstand wear. Two common designs exist: the single jet side feed nozzle, where
abrasives are fed from the side and mixed in the chamber (simple, low-cost, but less efficient), and
the multiple jet central feed nozzle, where a central abrasive feed is surrounded by multiple water
jets (providing better mixing, higher nozzle life, and greater efficiency).
4. Catcher: Finally, the catcher is used to absorb and dissipate the residual energy of the abrasive
water jet after it cuts through the workpiece. When the nozzle remains stationary and the workpiece
moves, a long narrow tube (catcher) is placed under the cutting point. In cases where the workpiece
is stationary and the nozzle moves, a water-filled settling tank is provided below the workpiece.
Various catcher designs exist, including water basin type, submerged steel ball type, and TiB₂ plate
type. These systems prevent damage and minimize hazards by safely dissipating the kinetic energy
of the used jet.

Types of Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) systems are generally classified into two main types:

• Entrained type, and

• Suspension type.

In the entrained type AWJM, abrasive particles are drawn into the high-pressure water jet stream
through suction, a process known as entrainment. The mixing occurs within the nozzle, where the
abrasives gain significant velocity from the water stream, often reaching around 800 m/s. Due to such
high velocities, this type of jet possesses a strong cutting capability and can machine almost any
material, including metals, ceramics, and composites. The entrained type is more commonly used
because of its relatively simpler design and reliable performance.

On the other hand, the suspension type AWJM forms the abrasive water jet in a different manner. In this
case, the abrasive particles are pre-mixed with water to form a slurry before being pressurized. The
pressurization of this slurry can be achieved by three distinct pumping methods: direct pumping,
indirect pumping, and bypass pumping. This approach generally provides better control over abrasive
concentration and mixing but requires more complex equipment. Suspension-based AWJM is
particularly useful in applications where higher precision and controlled material removal are required.

Process Variables in AWJM

The performance of Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) depends on several process variables.
These include:
 1) Pressure of the water
2) Water flow rate
3) Type and size of abrasives
4) Abrasive flow rate
5) Nozzle design
6) Feed rate
7) Stand-off distance (SOD)
8) Workpiece material
9) Number of passes
10) Mixing tube dimensions.

Each variable influences the depth of cut, surface finish, and overall machining efficiency.

1. Pressure of the Water

• Higher water pressure → higher jet velocity → greater kinetic energy transfer.

• Directly increases depth of cut and material removal rate (MRR).

• Very high pressures may cause jet deflection or excessive wear of nozzle.

2. Water Flow Rate

• Determines the amount of carrier fluid available to accelerate abrasives.

• Higher flow rate improves abrasive acceleration, but excessive flow may reduce mixing
efficiency.

• Needs to be optimized for energy transfer.

3. Type and Size of Abrasives

• Harder abrasives (e.g., garnet, alumina, SiC) → higher cutting ability.

• Finer abrasives → better surface finish, but lower penetration.

• Coarser abrasives → deeper cut, but rougher surface.

4. Abrasive Flow Rate (AFR)

• Low AFR → insufficient particles for effective erosion.

• Very high AFR → particle–particle collisions reduce cutting efficiency.

• There exists an optimum AFR for maximum depth and efficiency.

5. Nozzle Design

• Shape, diameter, and length of nozzle influence jet coherence.

 • Proper nozzle design ensures efficient abrasive acceleration and reduces turbulence.

• Tapered nozzles improve focus; poor design leads to divergence and poor surface quality.

6. Feed Rate (Traverse Speed)

• Low feed rate → higher exposure time → deeper cut, smoother surface.

• High feed rate → shallow cut, striations on surface, reduced quality.

• Must be optimized to balance productivity vs. finish.

7. Stand-Off Distance (SOD)

• Small SOD (2–4 mm typical) keeps jet focused → deeper cut, smoother surface.

• Large SOD → jet spreads, reducing cutting efficiency and surface finish.

• Too small SOD risks nozzle damage.

8. Workpiece Material

• Hardness, toughness, brittleness, and microstructure affect erosion.

• Brittle materials (glass, ceramics) → micro-cracking dominates removal.

• Ductile materials (metals) → plastic deformation and micro-cutting dominate.

9. Number of Passes

• Multiple passes allow deeper cutting without overloading a single pass.

• Improves depth control but reduces productivity.

• Useful for thick workpieces.

10. Mixing Tube Dimensions

• Length and diameter of the mixing tube determine abrasive acceleration and jet coherence.

• Too short → incomplete mixing.

• Too long → particle deceleration and nozzle wear.

• Proper dimensions ensure maximum cutting efficiency.

Process Capabilities

• AWJM can be thought of as a combination of WJM and AJM principles.

• But in terms of capability, AWJM combines the best of both processes, resulting in a new
process that can cut materials whether they are hard or soft at high rates and in very thick
sections.
• AWJM can cut materials as thick as 200mm and still maintain a comparatively narrow kerf.
 • Kerf width is a function of the material thickness and usually is between 1.5 and 2.3 mm.
• The resulting taper on the cut edge is a function of the material hardness,
• Where hard materials have the widest kerf at the top of the cut and soft materials have the
widest kerf at the bottom of the cut.

Advantages

• It can cut electrically non- conductive and hard materials rapidly and efficiently.
• Cutting speed is high.
• The process has multi-direction cutting capacity.
• No fire hazards and no dust problem.
• High quality of machined surface is obtained.
• Recycling of abrasive particles is possible.
• The process requires low power.
• During the process, no thermal or distortion stresses.
• Make all sorts of shapes with only one tool.
• No heat generated.
• Unlike machining or grinding, abrasive waterjet cutting does not produce any dust or particles that
are harmful if inhaled.

Disadvantages

• This process can cut a limited number of materials economically. During the cutting of tool steel
and other hard materials, the cutting rate is low, hence it requires more time. This increases the
cost of machining.
• Very thick parts with good dimensional accuracy cannot be cut by this process.
• Taper is also a problem with waterjet cutting in very thick materials. Taper occurs when the jet
exits the part at a different angle than it entered, which can cause dimensional inaccuracy.
Decreasing the speed of the head may reduce this issue, although it can still persist.

Applications

• This process is suitable for cutting metals (copper, lead, tungsten, copper alloys, aluminium,
tungsten carbide, etc.) and non-metals (graphite, silica, glass, concrete, acrylic, etc.).
• It is used to machine the sandwiched honeycomb structural material used in the aerospace
industries.
• It is used for cutting materials in several industries like aerospace, oil, foundry, automotive,
construction, and glass.
• Different types of steels can be cut into different shapes, like plate, tube, corrugated structure, etc.
Mixing of Abrasive with Water Jet in the Mixing Chamber
In abrasive water jet machining (AWJM), the mixing process plays a crucial role in determining the
efficiency and quality of the machining process. After the formation of the high-pressure pure water jet,
abrasive particles are gradually entrained into the stream within the mixing chamber, as shown in the
figure. These particles do not instantly attain the velocity of the water jet; instead, they are progressively
accelerated through the transfer of momentum from the water to the abrasive phase. The assumption
often made in modelling is that both phases eventually reach the same velocity, which simplifies the
analysis of the process. The effectiveness of AWJM largely depends on how efficiently the abrasives
are accelerated inside the mixing tube.

The focusing tube, where this mixing takes place, is generally made of tungsten carbide due to its high
resistance to abrasive wear. As abrasive particles enter the jet, not all of them are immediately captured;
some are reflected away because of the interplay between buoyancy and drag forces, as shown in the
figure. These particles continue to interact with both the high-speed water jet and the inner walls of the
focusing tube, undergoing multiple collisions before they are fully entrained. Through these
interactions, they gradually align with the jet flow and are accelerated to nearly the same velocity as the
water jet. By the time the mixture exits the nozzle, the abrasives and water form a coherent, high-energy
jet capable of efficient material removal. This highlights the dual importance of proper momentum
transfer and durable construction of the focusing tube in ensuring effective AWJM operation.
Mathematical Model for Mixing

From the Momentum Conservation,

Water jet momentum before mixing: mwVwj

After mixing (abrasive + water exit jet): ( mw + mab )Vawj

where
mw =  wQw is mass flow rate of water
Vwj is water velocity at nozzle exit
mab is mass flow rate of abrasive
Vawj is the velocity of abraisve-water jet mixture

Assuming negligible air moment and no momentum loss in the mixing process:
mwVwj = ( mw + mab )Vawj

mw
 Vawj = V
( mw + mab ) wj
1 m
 Vawj = Vwj , where R is loading factor = ab
(1 + R ) mw

Considering momentum loss in the mixing process:

1
Vawj =  V , where  is moment loss factor
(1 + R ) wj

Cutting Mechanism

In abrasive water jet machining (AWJM), material removal is primarily governed by the high-velocity
impact of abrasive particles carried by the water jet. When these particles strike the surface of a
workpiece, they generate localized stresses that exceed the material’s strength, leading to different
cutting mechanisms depending on whether the material is ductile or brittle. In ductile materials such as
aluminum or mild steel, the dominant mechanism is micro-cutting combined with plastic deformation,
where the abrasive particles plough across the surface and separate material in the form of fine chips.
In contrast, in brittle materials such as glass or ceramics, material removal occurs mainly through brittle
fracture. The impact of the abrasives initiates cracks that propagate and cause small fragments to break
away, though limited plastic deformation may also occur locally. Additionally, the cutting mechanism
changes with depth of cut. At shallow depths, the process is dominated by sharp cutting or brittle
fracture, but as the depth increases, the abrasives lose energy and the removal mechanism gradually
shifts toward separation by plastic deformation. This transition often results in a rougher surface finish
at greater depths of penetration.
Material Removal Rate

The power of the abrasive phase of the abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) can be estimated as:
1
Pab = 2
mabVawj
2
mab 1
R=  mab = mw R and Vawj = V
mw (1 + R ) wj
2
1  1 
 Pab = mw R  Vwj 
2  (1 + R ) 
We know that:
mw =  wQw and Qw = cd AorificeVwj
 mw =  w cd AorificeVwj

 2 Pw
Also, Aorifice = d 02 and Vwj =
4 w
3
  1 
2
 2 Pw 
 Pab =  w cd d 02 R    
8 1+ R   w 

 1  3/2  2 
2

 Pab = cd d 02 R   Pw  
4 1+ R   w 
Assumption:
• The material removal rate (MRR) is proportional to the power of the abrasive phase of AWJM.
• The water phase does not contribute to material removal in AWJM.
Therefore, MRR  Pab

1  3/2  2 
2
 1  2 
 MRR =   cd d0 R   Pw  
u 4 1+ R   w 
where, u is the specific energy requirement and would be a property of the work material.

Penetration Height (Depth of Cut)

 MRR = hwvc
MRR
h=
wvc

 1  Pw  2 
2
 1 
3/2
 h =   cd d02 R    
u 4  1 + R  wvc   w 

where,

h = Depth of penetration/cut.
w = Width or diameter of the water jet
vc = Traverse speed of the AWJ or cutting speed
 ULTRASONIC MACHINING
Introduction

Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is a non-traditional mechanical material removal process used for shaping
hard and brittle materials such as glass, ceramics, quartz, and advanced composites. In this process, a
ductile tool (brass or steel) of desired shape vibrates at ultrasonic frequencies (about 18–25 kHz) with
a small amplitude (15–50 μm). Between the tool and the workpiece, a slurry of fine abrasive particles
(such as silicon carbide or boron carbide in water) is continuously supplied.

The oscillating tool does not directly cut the workpiece; instead, it transmits its energy to the abrasives,
which in turn impact, indent, and chip away tiny fragments of the brittle work material. Over time, the
tool shape is replicated in the workpiece, as shown in the figure.

Construction

The figure illustrates the complete setup of the Ultrasonic Machining (USM) process. The main
component is an electromechanical transducer that produces vibrations in the frequency range of 20–
30 kHz. Since this frequency is above the upper audible limit of the human ear, the machining operation
remains silent. In this process, a slurry consisting of fine abrasive particles is continuously supplied to
the machining zone. The tool vibrates at ultrasonic frequency and forces the abrasive slurry against the
surface of the workpiece, causing material removal in the form of very small chips. The tool used is
generally made of soft materials, as its primary function is to transmit vibrations rather than to cut
directly. In some cases, hollow tools are employed because they allow the slurry to flow more easily
through the tool and reach the machining zone. The slurry can be fed either manually or by means of a
pump, depending on the setup. The transducer itself is typically made of magneto strictive material,
which, when excited by a high-frequency electric current, undergoes rapid expansion and contraction.
This converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations, which are then transmitted through the tool
to achieve the machining action.

Working

The working of Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is based on converting electrical energy into mechanical
vibrations. A high-frequency electric current is supplied by the ultrasonic oscillator to the ultrasonic
transducer, which transforms this electrical energy into ultrasonic vibrations. These vibrations generally
lie in the frequency range of 20–30 kHz and produce an amplitude of about 0.01 mm to 0.1 mm. The
generated vibrations are transmitted to the cutting tool through a sequence of components, including
the transducer cone, the connecting body, and the tool holder. As a result, the tool vibrates in a
longitudinal direction, as shown in the Figure. When these vibrations are applied in the presence of
abrasive slurry, the tool effectively impacts the slurry particles against the workpiece surface, causing
material removal. The shape of the tool is designed as a mirror image of the cavity or profile to be
produced on the workpiece. Due to this working principle, Ultrasonic Machining is sometimes also
referred to as Ultrasonic Grinding or Impact Grinding.
Equipment :

Ultrasonic machining consists of the following main equipment (components):

1) Ultrasonic transducer

2) Tool

3) Abrasive feed mechanism

4) Concentrator

5) Abrasive slurry

6) Tool feed mechanism

➢ Ultrasonic transducer

The ultrasonic transducer is a key component of the Ultrasonic Machining (USM) setup. It is the device
that converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations required for the machining operation. When
a high-frequency electrical signal is supplied to the transducer, it produces ultrasonic vibrations of high
frequency and low amplitude. These vibrations are then transmitted to the tool, which interacts with the
abrasive slurry to carry out the material removal process.

Essentially, the transducer functions as an energy converter, transforming electrical energy into
mechanical vibrations. Two main types of transducers are commonly used in USM: piezoelectric and
magneto-strictive. Piezoelectric transducers work on the piezoelectric effect, where certain crystals
expand and contract under an electric field, producing vibrations. They are highly efficient (around
95%), compact, reliable, do not generally require cooling, but are limited to about 900 W capacity.
Magnetostrictive transducers, on the other hand, use ferromagnetic materials such as nickel and its
alloys, which change length under a magnetic field. They can operate at higher capacities (up to 2000
W) but have lower efficiency (20–30%), produce smaller amplitude vibrations (0.06–0.1 mm), and
require cooling due to eddy current losses. These are mostly found in older USM machines. Since the
amplitude of vibration from transducers alone is insufficient, a concentrator (horn) is used to amplify
the vibrations before transmitting them to the tool. The choice between piezoelectric and magneto-
strictive types depends on the machining requirement and workpiece material.

➢ Concentrator

The concentrator, also known as the tool holder, tool cone, horn, or waveguide, forms the connection
between the transducer and the tool in Ultrasonic Machining (USM). Its primary function is to transmit
vibrations from the transducer to the tool, and in many cases, to increase the amplitude of vibration.
Concentrators are broadly classified into two types: non-amplifying and amplifying. Non-amplifying
concentrators, usually of cylindrical cross-section, deliver the same amplitude of vibration at the tool
end as received from the transducer. Amplifying concentrators, such as exponential, conical, or stepped
types, increase the amplitude at the tool end, enabling faster material removal—up to ten times that of
non-amplifying types. However, amplifying concentrators have drawbacks, including higher
fabrication cost, poorer surface finish, frequent tuning requirements to maintain resonance, and higher
operating costs.

Concentrators are generally made of Monel metal, stainless steel, titanium alloys, or aluminium.
Monel metal (a nickel-copper alloy with small amounts of iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon) is
preferred because of its strength, brazing capability, and properties similar to titanium. Stainless steel
is less desirable due to its low fatigue strength and is used only for low-amplitude applications. The tool
tip or tool face attached to the concentrator may be made of materials such as diamond, tool steel,
stainless steel, cold-rolled steel, brass, or copper, depending on the machining requirements.

➢ Tool

The tool in Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is fixed at the end of the concentrator, either by brazing,
soldering, or mechanical fastening. Unlike conventional machining tools, it must be ductile and tough
rather than hard, since its role is to transmit vibrations rather than perform direct cutting. The
machining performance depends on the hardness ratio between the workpiece and the tool—when the
workpiece hardness is much higher than the tool hardness, the material removal rate (MRR) decreases.
In practice, the tool’s slenderness ratio should not exceed 20 to avoid instability. A smaller contact area
is preferred as it improves abrasive slurry flow and enhances penetration. However, when the cutting
path is long, inefficient slurry scavenging from inner regions leads to poor cutting performance. The
tool is typically shaped as the mirror image of the desired cavity, with allowances made for abrasive
particle size and tool wear. In this context, the tool is also called a sonotrode, which generates ultrasonic
vibrations and applies them to the slurry and workpiece. Depending on the application, the tool tip or
tool face may be made of diamond, tool steel, stainless steel, cold-rolled steel, brass, or copper.

➢ Abrasive slurry

The abrasive slurry in Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is a mixture of fine abrasive grains suspended in a
carrier fluid, usually water, and is continuously circulated by a pump through the gap between the tool
and the workpiece. The slurry plays a crucial role in material removal, as the vibrating tool drives the
abrasive particles against the workpiece surface, causing micro-chipping. Common abrasives used
include aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃), boron carbide (B₄C), silicon carbide (SiC), diamond dust, and
boron silicarbide, with grit sizes typically ranging from 240 to 1000. The choice of abrasive depends
on factors such as hardness, particle size, usable life, and cost. Fresh abrasives are generally preferred
because they provide sharper cutting edges, better penetration, and a sustained material removal rate
compared to worn abrasives.

➢ Carrier Fluids

In Ultrasonic Machining (USM), abrasive grains are suspended in a carrier fluid to form the abrasive
slurry. The most common carrier fluid is water, typically mixed with 30–40% abrasives by volume.
Thinner mixtures are used in operations such as drilling holes or machining complex cavities, as they
improve slurry flow. Since the slurry loses efficiency over time, it must be replaced periodically. To
enhance water performance, inhibitors are often added to reduce corrosion and improve slurry stability.
Apart from water, other carrier fluids such as benzene, glycerol, and low-viscosity oils may also be
used in special cases.

An ideal carrier fluid should have density close to that of the abrasives, good wetting ability, high
thermal conductivity and specific heat for effective cooling, low viscosity for smooth slurry flow,
and must be non-toxic, non-corrosive, and inexpensive. The carrier fluid performs several critical
functions: it acts as an acoustic bond between the tool and workpiece, serves as a coolant to dissipate
heat, ensures efficient transfer of vibrational energy, and carries abrasive particles as well as the
removed material and worn abrasives away from the machining zone.

➢ Abrasive feed mechanism

The abrasive feed mechanism in ultrasonic machining ensures a continuous supply of abrasive slurry to
the machining zone. The slurry is commonly delivered through a nozzle using a pump, or more
effectively, by immersing both the tool and the workpiece in a slurry bath, which guarantees uniform
supply and minimizes scattering at high vibration amplitudes. An even more efficient method is to
channel the slurry directly through a hollow tool or via holes in the workpiece, providing better
distribution and enhancing machining efficiency.

➢ Tool feed mechanism

The tool feed mechanism in Ultrasonic Machining (USM) serves to apply a controlled static load
between the tool and the workpiece during machining. It ensures the tool is gradually brought close to
the workpiece surface, provides a constant cutting force, and enables smooth retraction of the tool when
required. Sensitivity of the feed is crucial, as it directly affects machining efficiency and accuracy.
While feed can be applied either to the acoustic head or to the workpiece, in most cases it is given to
the acoustic head, allowing the workpiece to be positioned freely in the X–Y plane. The tool feed
mechanism controls both the penetration rate and the depth of machining.

Several types of feed mechanisms are employed, including spring type, counter-weight type, motor
type, and pneumatic/hydraulic type. The spring feed mechanism uses spring pressure to apply force,
and is preferred for its compactness and sensitivity. The counter-weight or gravity feed mechanism
employs counterweights connected through pulleys, offering simple construction and adjustable load
by varying the weights, though it lacks sensitivity and adjustability during operation. Pneumatic and
hydraulic feed systems are generally used in high-power machines, as they enable higher feed rates and
better control. All feed systems are equipped with displacement measuring arrangements to monitor
tool penetration depth.

The working principle involves supplying AC power to the transducer, which generates vibrations that
are amplified by the horn or concentrator. These vibrations are transmitted to the tool, which vibrates
longitudinally at maximum amplitude. As the vibrating tool is fed onto the workpiece along with
abrasive slurry, abrasive particles trapped between the tool and workpiece repeatedly impact the
surface, causing micro-fractures and material removal. The slurry carries away fractured particles, while
the tool feed mechanism ensures that the cavity formed matches the mirror image of the tool shape.
➢ Work Material

Ultrasonic Machining (USM) is primarily suitable for machining hard and brittle materials, since the
mechanism of material removal in this process is based on brittle fracture rather than plastic
deformation. The repeated impact of abrasive particles, transmitted through the vibrating tool, causes
micro-cracks to form on the workpiece surface, which then propagate and result in material removal.
This makes USM ideal for machining materials that are otherwise very difficult to cut using
conventional methods. Typical work materials include stones, carbides, ceramics, glass, germanium,
and advanced engineering ceramics, all of which possess hardness values greater than 50 HRC.
Unlike ductile materials, which tend to deform plastically under impact, these brittle materials respond
effectively to the fracture-based removal mechanism of USM. Hence, the process finds wide
applications in shaping and finishing of hard, fragile components where precision and surface integrity
are critical.

Process Capability

1) Machining Capability: USM can machine very hard materials in the range of 40 HRC to 60 HRC,
including carbides, ceramics, tungsten, and glass, which are otherwise difficult or impossible to
machine using conventional methods.

2) Tolerance Range: The process achieves a high level of accuracy, with tolerances typically
between 7 microns and 25 microns.

3) Micro-hole Drilling: Holes as small as 76 microns in diameter and up to 51 mm deep can be

easily drilled. With special flushing techniques, hole depths of up to 152 mm are also possible.

4) Aspect Ratio: High aspect ratios up to 40:1 have been successfully achieved, making USM
suitable for deep and narrow cavities.

5) Material Removal Rate (MRR): The linear material removal rate varies from 0.025 mm/min to
25 mm/min, depending on the hardness of the material and process conditions.

6) Surface Finish: USM provides excellent surface finishes in the range of 0.25 to 0.75 microns,
which is suitable for precision applications.

7) Surface Texture: The process produces a non-directional surface texture, unlike conventional
grinding, which leaves directional marks.

8) Radial Overcut: The overcut in USM is minimal, typically only 1.5 to 4 times the mean abrasive
grain size, ensuring precise and accurate machining.

Advantages

1) It can be used machine hard, brittle, fragile, and non-conductive materials.

 2) No heat is generated in the work; therefore, no significant changes in the physical structure of the
work material.

3) Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that cannot be machined by EDM and
ECM can very well be machined by USM.

4) It is burr less and distortion-less processes.

5) Capability of drilling circular, non-circular holes in very hard materials like stones, carbides,
ceramics, and exceptionally brittle materials.

6) Bur less process.

7) No thermal effects on the machined workpiece.

8) Low cost of metal removal.

9) It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies like EDM, ECG, and ECM.

10) Equipment is safe to operate.

Limitations

1) Low metal removal rate. Not suitable for heavy stock removal.

2) It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted.

3) The tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles. Tools made from brass, tungsten carbide, MS,
or tool steel will wear from the action of abrasive grit with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 200:1

4) USM can be used only when the hardness of the work is more than 45 HRC.

5) Frequent tuning is required.

6) Not economical for soft materials.

7) High tooling cost.

8) Periodic replacement of abrasive slurry.

9) Tendency of tools to ‘break out’ at the bottom owing to static load and amplitude.

10) Inability to machine soft material.

Applications

1) Machining of cavities in electrically non-conductive ceramics

2) Diamond, tungsten, tungsten carbide, gemstones, and synthetic ruby can be successfully
machined.

3) Used to machine fragile components.

 4) Used for multistep processing for fabricating silicon nitride (Si3N4) turbine blades.

5) Used for machining hard, brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass, ceramics, carbides, etc.

6) Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface impressions.

7) Used in the machining of dies for wire drawing, punching, and blanking operations.

8) USM can perform machining operations like drilling, grinding, and milling operations on all
materials that can be treated suitably with abrasives.

9) USM has been used for piercing of dies and for parting off and blanking operations.

10) USM enables a dentist to drill a hole of any shape in teeth without any pain.

11) Ferrites and steel parts, precision mineral stones can be machined using USM.

12) USM can be used to cut industrial diamonds.

13) USM is used for grinding Quartz, Glass, ceramics, cutting holes with curved or spiral centre lines,
and cutting threads in glass and mineral or metallic ceramics.

14) Gang drilling can be done by employing the USM process.

Calculation of material removal rate (MRR) in USM

1) Empirical Approach

2) Analytical Approach

a) Cook’s Model

b) Shaw’s Model
Empirical model for the calculation of MRR in USM

This method is adopted in practice when the theory of analysis for MRR is not known. In this approach,
let us consider the following parameters that influence MRR:

i) Abrasive grit (R).

ii) Packing density (η), i.e., how closely the abrasives are packed in the slurry.

iii) Amplitude of vibration (y0) of the tool.

iv) Frequency of vibration (f).

v) Stress (σ) developed in the tool.

vi) Hardness (H) of the work material.

Hence, MRR can be expressed as a combined function of the above parameters as:

MRR =  ( say ) =  ( R, , Y0 , f ,  , H )

To get the relation exponentially, one must go through dimensionless parameters generated out of these
variables:

    Y0    
  ,   ,   and  
 Y0 f   R  H 

Y      
Keeping  0  and   constant, one must plot the relation between   and   .
R Y f
 0  H 

This is done under a constant static load and slurry conditions. MRR is observed for varying work
hardness H, and the experiment is repeated for different values of Y0. The curves are generally non-
linear, so assuming first-order non-linearity, the log-log plot is given as:

Y 
From the curves intercept [C] against  0  we get:
R
     
log   = n   + log C
 Y0 f  H 

n
    
 =C 
 Y0 f  H 

Y 
Now, the curves intercept [C] against  0  to get their relations. This procedure may be conducted for
R
different packing densities (η).

Y 
Hence relation of C with  0  can be written as (from the figure):
R

Y 
C = K ( )  0  , where K is a function.
R

Therefore,

n
    Y0    
  = K ( )    
 Y0 f   R H 
n
Y  
= K1  0    , such that K1 (constant) = K ( )
 R H 
n
Y2  
 = K1  0     f
 R H 