PHYSIOLOGY OF SMELL
Index
1. INTRODUCTION
2. OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
3. OLFACTORY PATHWAY
4. VOMERONASAL ORGANS
5. NERVE SUPPLY
6. APPLIED PART
INTRODUCTION
1. The sense of smell is known as olfaction. It is classified under visceral senses because of its close
association with gastrointestinal functions.
2. The receptors for smell are chemoreceptors located in the olfactory mucosa of the nasal
epithelium.
3. The olfactory system is the only sensory system that does not relay in the thalamus on its way to
the cortex. And, the olfactory system has an asymmetric cortical representation.
SITE OF OLFACTION
➢ OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
1. The olfactory receptor cells are located in a
specialized area of the nasal mucosa lining the
roof of the nasal cavity called the olfactory
epithelium or the olfactory mucus membrane.
2. It is a patch of yellowish pigmented mucus
membrane extending laterally to the superior on a
and medially to the upper third of the median
septum.
3. It occupies an area of about 2.5 sq.
cm in each nostril in humans and is covered
by mucus produced by the Bowman’s
glands.
4. The area is large in animals like
dogs, in which the sense of smell is pretty
well developed (macrosmatic animals).
Human beings are microsmatic.
5. The olfactory epithelium contains
10–20 million receptor cells interspersed
between supporting cells and progenitor
cells. The progenitor cells are stem cells that
form new receptor cells by mitosis.
➢ OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELLS
1. The olfactory receptor cell is a bipolar neuron. It has a short, thick dendrite with an expanded
end called an olfactory rod that gives off 10–20 cilia.
2. Each cilium is about 2 µm long and 0.1 µm in diameter. The cilia are unmyelinated and
project into the mucus, where they interact with odorants dissolved in the mucus.
OLFACTORY PATHWAY
1. Bipolar nerve cells of the olfactory
epithelium are the first-order neurons. Each
receptor cell gives rise to only one axon, which
joins with those derived from other receptors,
forming the fila olfactory or the olfactory
nerves. The olfactory nerves are unmyelinated
and have got neurolemmal sheath. The sheath
is continuous with the subarachnoid space.
2. The nerves pierce the cribriform plate
of the ethmoid bone and enter the olfactory
bulb. Here, the axons make synapses with the
dendrites of the mitral cells and the tufted cells
to form the complex globular structures, which
are known as olfactory glomeruli.
3. Approximately 26,000 receptor cells
converge on each glomerulus, and each
glomerulus again passes impulses to about 24
mitral cells and 68 tufted cells. The mitral and
tufted cells are the second-order neurons, and
their axons constitute the olfactory tract.
4. The olfactory tract proceeds towards
the anterior perforated substance and divides in the olfactory trigone into well-defined olfactory striae-
medial, intermediate, and lateral.
5. The axons of the tufted cells leave the tract and most probably end in the opposite bulb via the
anterior commissure through the medial olfactory stria. This tract, after entering the anterior commissure,
passes bilaterally to the nucleus of the stria terminalis, the olfactory tubercle, and to the amygdaloid
nucleus complex.
6. The axons of the mitral cells pass through the lateral olfactory stria and end in the anterior
olfactory nucleus. Cortical and medial portions of the ipsilateral amygdaloid nucleus, and in the
prepyriform cortex and periamygdaloid cortex.
7. The prepyriform cortex and the periamygdaloid cortex are the primary olfactory cortex. The
entorhinal cortex (area 28) is the secondary olfactory area because it receives fibres from the primary
olfactory cortex or the adjacent neocortex. There is no thalamic representation of the olfactory system.
8. Another groups of fibres, which are less significant in man, pass through the intermediate stria
and ends within the anterior perforated substance and the area of the diagonal band of Broca.
VOMERONASAL ORGANS
1. The vomeronasal organ is an accessory olfactory
organ found in many animals, including
mammals.
2. It is enclosed in a cartilaginous capsule, which
opens into the base of the nasal cavity. Olfactory
receptors of this organ are sensitive to non-
volatile substances such as scents and
pheromones.
3. The vomeronasal organ helps animals detect
even trace quantities of chemicals. Impulses
from this organ are sent to the amygdala and
hypothalamus via the accessory olfactory bulb.
OLFACTORY TRANSDUCTION
1. Olfactory transduction is the process by which an olfactory receptor converts chemical energy
into action potentials in an olfactory nerve fiber.
2. The odoriferous substance stimulates the olfactory receptors only if it dissolves in mucus,
covering the olfactory mucus membrane.
3. Molecules of dissolved substance bind with receptor proteins in the cilia and form a substance-
receptor complex. The substance receptor complex activates adenyl cyclase, which causes the
formation of cyclic AMP.
4. Cyclic AMP, in turn, causes the opening of sodium channels, leading to the influx of sodium and
the generation of receptor potential.
5. Receptor potential causes the generation of an action potential in the axon of a bipolar neuron.
CLASSIFICATION OF ODOR
Odor is classified into various types. Substances producing different kinds of odor are:
1. Aromatic or resinous Odor: Camphor, lavender, clove, and bitter almonds
2. Ambrosial Odor: Musk
3. Burning Odor: Burning feathers, tobacco, roasted coffee, and meat
4. Ethereal Odor: Fruits, ethers, and beeswax
5. Fragrant or balsamic Odor: Flowers and perfumes
6. Garlic Odor: Garlic, onion, and sulphur
7. Goat Odor: Caproic acid and sweet cheese
8. Nauseating Odor: Decayed vegetables and feces
9. Repulsive Odor: Bed bug.
THRESHOLD FOR OLFACTORY SENSATION
1. Ethyl ether: 5.8 mg/L of air
2. Chloroform: 3.3 mg/L of air
3. Peppermint oil: 0.02 mg/L of air
4. Butyric acid: 0.009 mg/L of air
5. Artificial musk: 0.00004 mg/L of air
6. Methyl mercaptan: 0.0000004 mg/L of air. Thus, methyl mercaptan produces an olfactory sensation
even at a low concentration of 0.0000004 mg/L of air.
OLFACTORY ADAPTATION
1. The olfactory receptors become insensitive to a particular odorous substance after exposure to a
specific period of time. For instance, the odour of the oil of lemon is not perceptible after an exposure
varying from 2.5 to 10 minutes.
2. This is due to sensory adaptation. It is partly a central phenomenon, but it is also due to a change in
the receptors themselves.
3. Threshold of olfactory sensation
4. It is the minimum concentration of different odorous substances to arouse olfactory sensation.
Artificial musk, iodoform, butyric acid, etc., are perceptible in minimum concentration.
OLFACTORY DISCRIMINATION
Man can distinguish between 2000 and 4000 different odours, and different parts of the olfactory mucous
membrane respond differently to the same odours and receptors. Classification according to the different
odours is still unsuccessful.
PHYSIOLOGY OF OLFACTION
The substances which remain in the gaseous state, e.g., turpentine, essential oil, etc., produce strong
odours, whereas non-volatile substances, viz. the heavy metals, etc., are odourless. The odoriferous
substances after inhalation do not reach the olfactory areas immediately but remain in the middle of
the nose, e.g., below the level of the superior concha. The odorous particles of molecular size emitted
by the odoriferous substances ascend upwards through the air and reach the olfactory areas either by
eddy current or by diffusion. Diffusion is a slow process, and so eddy current is the main factor. After
reaching the olfactory area, the odorous particles are dissolved in the fluid secreted by Bowman's
glands. The secretion of Bowman's glands contain both water and oil. The odoriferous substances,
which are soluble in water and oil, produce a strong odour. The high solubility in oil is of greater
importance than that of water solubility for olfactory stimulation. The odorous particles, after getting
into solution, become adsorbed on the surface of the cilia. There is some specificity or selectivity in
the adsorption of odorous substances onto the olfactory receptors. After the odorous substances are
adsorbed onto the olfactory mucosa, generator potentials of 4-6 second durations are developed. These
generator potentials, when they reach their threshold value, initiate an action potential which is then
propagated along the axons to the olfactory bulb. The odour-producing molecules react with chemical
groupings on the surface protein film of the receptor, thereby increasing the surface area of the proteins,
which would distort the receptor surface and thus a generator potential is initiated.
NERVE SUPPLY OF OLFACTORY MUCOSA
1. Olfactory mucosa is innervated by OLFACTORY NERVES
2. General sensory- nerves supplying olfactory mucosa- TRIGEMINAL NERVE
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
1. ANOSMIA
Anosmia refers to the total loss of the sensation of smell, i.e., the inability to recognize or detect any
odour. It may be temporary or permanent. Temporary anosmia is due to obstruction of the nose,
which occurs during common cold, nasal sinus, and allergic conditions. Permanent anosmia occurs
during lesions in the olfactory tract, meningitis, and degenerative conditions such as Parkinson's
disease and Alzheimer's disease.
2. HYPOSMIA
Hyposmia is the reduced ability to recognize and detect any odor. The odors can be detected only at
higher concentrations. It is the most common disorder of smell. Hyposmia also may be temporary or
permanent. It occurs due to the same causes of anosmia.
3. HYPEROSMIA
Hyperosmia is the increased or exaggerated olfactory sensation. It is also called olfactory
hyperesthesia. It occurs in brain injury, epilepsy, and neurotic conditions.
TEST FOR OLFACTION
Clinically, the sense of smell is tested by presenting small bottles containing familiar odors, e.g.,
asafetida, clove oil, or peppermint oil, to each nostril separately. The person is asked to identify the
odor with eyes closed. The odor should not be an irritating substance like ammonia; else, it will
stimulate the 5th cranial nerve. This is a qualitative test to assess olfactory function. Quantitatively,
olfaction is tested by the olfactometer.
BIBLOGRAPHY
1. Gk pal
2. CC Chatterjee
3. K sembulingum