Subject: CONSERVATIONAL OF NATURAL RSOURCES

Subcode:21cv654

Module 4

Biodiversity: Introduction, Flora and Fauna, Importance of biodiversity, Economic values-medicinal

plants, drugs, fisheries biogeochemical cycling. Threat to biodiversity, natural & anthropogenic
disturbance, habitat loss. Conservation of biodiversity, National parks, wild life sanctuaries,
zoological gardens, gene banks, pollen culture, ecological restoration, social forestry. Ecosystem:
Definition, Types: forest, grass land, marine, desert, wetlands, estuarine, lotic, lentic. Abiotic & biotic
components of ecosystem.

Biodiversity: Introduction,
Biodiversity is a contraction of ―biological diversity‖. As per IUCN (International Union for
Conservation of Nature) Biodiversity/ biological diversity is a term used to describe the variety of
life on Earth. It refers to the wide variety of ecosystems and living organisms: animals, plants, their
habitats and their genes. OR It can be defined as the variability among living organisms from all
sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

Biodiversity is studied on three levels:

(a) Genetic diversity
(b) Species diversity and
(c) Ecosystem diversity

Genetic diversity is the diversity of genes within and among species. Genes define the qualities and
actions shared by a species and also explain the differences found among the individuals within the
species. For example: The different varieties of mangoes we relish, variety of roses we appreciate in
a rose garden, the red and yellow capsicum we buy in the market, and the diverse hair textures and
eye colors we see among our friends. These diverse characteristics stem from the differing genetic
make-up found within individual organisms.

The total variety of genes found within a species or a population of that species is referred to as its
gene pool. Genetic diversity can also be used to assess the consequences of wildlife introductions,
transplantations, stockings, and harvests.

Species diversity is the variety and number of different species which inhabit a particular area. For
example: the diversity of species will higher in a tropical rain forest in comparison to a desert. The
diversity of plants we have in a terrestrial ecosystem or a mountain ecosystem. It is also called as
taxonomic diversity so, some areas may be rich in closely related taxa, having evolved from a
common ancestor that was also found in that same area, whereas other areas may have an array of
less closely related species descended from different ancestors

Species richness and species evenness are probably the most frequently used measures of the total
biodiversity of a region. A greater species richness and diversity may cause ecosystems to function
more efficiently and productively by making more resources available for other species within the
ecosystem

Ecosystem diversity is the diversity of ecosystem. Ecosystems are the blend of communities of living
things with the physical environment in which they survive. For example there are many diverse
kinds of ecosystems, from deserts to mountain slopes, the ocean floor to the Antarctic, with coral
reefs and rainforests being amid the richest of these systems.
Each ecosystem provides many different types of habitats or living places. The living things and the
inorganic environment (earth forms, soil, rocks and water) interact constantly and in complex ways
that change over time, with no two ecosystems being the same.

Flora and Fauna,

Introduction to Flora And Fauna

Flora and fauna are two distinct components of our natural environment that play a vital role in the
balance and sustainability of ecosystems. Flora refers to the plant life found in a particular region,
while fauna refers to the animal life. Both flora and fauna are interconnected and coexist in harmony,
contributing to the overall biodiversity on our planet.

What is Flora?
Flora encompasses all the plant species inhabiting a specific geographic area or ecosystem. It includes
a diverse range of plants, such as trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, algae, mosses, ferns, and more. These
plants vary in terms of their characteristics, such as size, shape, color, and lifespan.

Features of Flora
The key features of flora are elaborated below,

 Vegetation on Land and in Water: Flora encompasses all plant life found on land as well as in
bodies of water. On land, flora ranges from towering trees in forests to delicate wildflowers in
meadows. In aquatic environments, flora includes various types of algae, seaweeds, and aquatic
plants like water lilies and mangroves. This diverse range of vegetation forms the foundation of
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, providing essential resources and habitats for numerous
organisms.
 Photosynthesis and Oxygen Production: Flora plays a crucial role in the process of
photosynthesis, wherein plants utilize sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose (a
form of sugar) and oxygen. This process is fundamental to life on Earth, as it serves as the primary
mechanism for converting solar energy into chemical energy. The oxygen released during
photosynthesis is vital for the respiration of organisms, including plants themselves, animals, and
microorganisms, thereby sustaining aerobic life forms.
 Habitats and Food Sources: Flora provides habitats and food sources for a wide array of animal
species, ranging from insects and birds to mammals and fish. Plants serve as primary producers at
the base of the food chain, synthesizing organic matter through photosynthesis. They offer shelter,
nesting sites, and protection for various organisms, while also serving as food for herbivores.
Additionally, fruits, seeds, nectar, and other plant parts serve as essential dietary components for
many animals.
 Climate Regulation: Flora contributes significantly to climate regulation through various
mechanisms. One of the most important contributions is the absorption of carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere during photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global
warming and climate change. By absorbing carbon dioxide, plants help mitigate its impact on the
climate. Moreover, flora releases oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis, which is essential for
maintaining atmospheric composition and supporting aerobic life forms. Additionally, vegetation
influences local climates through processes such as transpiration, where plants release water vapor
into the atmosphere, affecting humidity levels and regional precipitation patterns.

Flora plays multifaceted roles in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, ranging from primary production
and nutrient cycling to habitat provision and climate regulation. Understanding and conserving plant
biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem health, supporting biodiversity, and ensuring the
sustainability of life on Earth.

Importance of Flora
Flora serves various essential functions and the importance of flora are described below,

 Oxygen Production: Plants, through photosynthesis, produce oxygen, which is vital for all living
organisms, including humans.
 Food Source: Many animals, including herbivores and omnivores, rely on plants for their food.
Without flora, these animals would have no sustenance.
 Habitat: Flora provides shelter and nesting sites for countless creatures, creating a suitable habitat
for fauna.
 Erosion Control: Plant roots help anchor soil, preventing erosion and maintaining soil quality.
 Climate Regulation: Trees and other vegetation play a role in regulating local climates by
providing shade and releasing moisture into the air.
 Medicinal Plants: Several plants have medicinal properties and are used in traditional medicine
worldwide.
 Aesthetic and Recreational Value: Beautiful gardens, parks, and natural landscapes enrich our
lives and provide recreational opportunities.
 Biodiversity: A diverse flora supports a diverse fauna, leading to a healthier ecosystem.

What is Fauna?
Contrary to flora, which encompasses plant life, fauna refers to all the animal species inhabiting a
particular region or ecosystem. Fauna is incredibly diverse and ranges from microscopic organisms to
larger animals, forming intricate and interconnected food chains and webs. From insects and birds to
mammals and reptiles, fauna encompasses a vast array of species.

Features of Fauna

 Fauna exhibits a wide range of adaptations, allowing animals to thrive in different habitats and
environments.
 It plays a crucial role in pollination, seed dispersal, and the control of pest populations.
 Fauna contributes to the overall balance and functioning of ecosystems through various ecological
roles, such as predator-prey relationships and scavenging.
 It provides humans with sources of food, clothing, and companionship.

Importance of Fauna
Fauna is equally crucial for the balance of nature and the importance of Fauna is given below,

 Predator-Prey Relationships: The interaction between predators and prey helps control
populations and maintains ecological balance.
 Pollination: Many plants rely on animals like bees, butterflies, and birds for pollination, which is
essential for their reproduction.
 Seed Dispersal: Animals play a vital role in dispersing seeds, enabling plants to grow in new
locations.
 Food Chains: Fauna forms the basis of food chains, with different species occupying various
levels. This balance ensures that no single species overpopulates or becomes extinct.
 Ecosystem Engineers: Some animals, such as beavers and ants, actively modify their
environments, creating new habitats for other species.
 Aesthetic and Recreational Value: Watching wildlife and visiting zoos and aquariums provide
recreational and educational experiences.
 Scientific Research: Fauna is essential for scientific studies, helping us understand biology,
behavior, and the broader environment.
 Cultural Significance: Many animals hold cultural and religious significance in various societies
worldwide.

Diagrams for Flora and Fauna

To better understand the concepts of flora and fauna, here are a few key points illustrated in
diagrams:

 Flora comprises various types of plants, including trees, flowers, shrubs, and more.
 These plants interact with the environment, other organisms, and humans.
 Fauna encompasses a wide range of animal species, from insects and birds to mammals and
reptiles.
 It encompasses different ecological roles and interactions within ecosystems.

Importance of Flora and Fauna

For a better understanding let‘s see the importance of flora and fauna again combinedly.
Flora and fauna are of immense significance for the sustenance of life on Earth. Here are some
reasons why they are essential for our planet‘s overall well-being:

 Biodiversity: Flora and fauna collectively contribute to the biodiversity of our planet, which is
crucial for maintaining ecosystem stability and resilience. A diverse range of plant and animal
species ensures the availability of essential resources, promotes ecological balance and enhances
natural beauty.
 Oxygen production: Through the process of photosynthesis, flora produces oxygen, a
fundamental component of the air we breathe. Oxygen is not only vital for human survival but also
supports the respiration of various animal species. Therefore, without flora, oxygen levels would
significantly diminish, causing detrimental effects on life.
 Habitat and food provision: Flora creates habitats and provides shelter, food sources, and nesting
sites for a multitude of animal species. From the vast canopy of trees in a forest to the intricate
corals in the ocean, different types of plants sustain diverse animal populations, ensuring their
survival.
 Ecological balance: Flora and fauna interact in complex ways, forming a delicate ecological
balance. For instance, predators regulate prey populations, preventing overgrazing or
overpopulation. Similarly, certain plants rely on specific animal species for pollination or seed
dispersal, highlighting the interdependence between flora and fauna.
 Cultural and aesthetic value: Both flora and fauna hold cultural and aesthetic value. They inspire
art, literature, and poetry, enhancing our connection with nature. Furthermore, experiencing
 diverse plant and animal life improves our mental well-being and promotes eco-tourism,
contributing to local economies.

Difference Between Flora and Fauna

Here is a tabular representation of the key differences between flora and fauna:
Aspect Flora Fauna

Definition Plant life in a region Animal life in a region

Examples Trees, flowers, grasses, mosses Mammals, birds, reptiles,

insects

Nutrition Autotrophic (produce own food through Heterotrophic (depend on others

photosynthesis) for food)

Mobility Generally immobile (with some Generally mobile

exceptions)

Reproduction Typically asexual and sexual Sexual reproduction

reproduction

Predation Plants are preyed upon by herbivores Animals can be preyed upon by
predators

Role in Primary producers, providing oxygen and Consumers, maintaining food

Ecosystem food chains

Oxygen Releases oxygen through photosynthesis Requires oxygen for respiration

production

Interactions Interacts with environment, other Predators, prey, scavengers,

organisms mutualistic relationships

Importance of biodiversity,

It is important to preserve genetic diversity because all species depend on other species to survive
and if one species is lost it could negatively impact other species. In broader sense importance of
biodiversity can be grouped in following services:

(a) Environmental services

• Water purification: Forests provide wildlife with habitat, help maintain stable water
levels, control salinity, and act as filters against contaminants to improve water quality.
• Pollution breakdown and absorption: Plants and trees are a source of oxygen, and also
absorb carbon dioxide and some pollutants.
• Soils formation and protection: Trees and other vegetation helps in the formation and
maintenance of soil structure and the retention of moisture and nutrient levels. They
reduce soil erosion and provide wildlife habitat at the same time.
 • Waste management: Soils rich in organisms, such as fungi, bacteria and arthropods, are
healthier because these organisms break down organic matter and minerals into parts
that can be utilized by other organisms, such as food for plants.
• Climate stability: Vegetation influences climate at the macro and micro levels. Forest
helps to maintain the rainfall in its immediate vicinity by recycling water vapour at a
steady rate back into the atmosphere and through the canopy's effect in promoting
atmospheric turbulence. At smaller scales, vegetation has a moderating influence on
local climates

(b) Economic services

• Free pollination—many insects and birds provide the valuable service of pollinating
crop plants for free.
• Pest control—natural predators can act as controls for agricultural pests.
• Erosion control—soil erosion can be reduced by planting vegetation.
•Water purification—keeping water sources free from livestock reduces contamination
of the water and helps improve herd heath.
• Stress resistance—healthy ecosystems have a greater resistance to stressors such as
drought, diseases, overgrazing and fire.
• Genetic resources—wild plant and animal species are a source of genetic resources that
may possess desirable traits for breeding programs.

(c) Social services

• Outdoor recreation—hiking, camping, bird watching, canoeing, and other outdoor
activities provide enjoyment for many people.
• Revenue from tourism—tourists who want to experience nature contribute revenue to
the economy, which means jobs for many Canadians.
• Cultural benefit: The cultural value of biological diversity conservation for present and
future generations is an important reason for conserving it today. Human cultures co-
evolve with their environment, and the conservation of biological diversity can be
important for cultural identity throughout Earth.
• Other benefits—biodiversity provides fulfillment to people simply because of its
beauty as well as for spiritual reasons.

Economic values-medicinal plants, drugs,

Direct value: refers to products or commodities which are consumed directly such as food or timber.
Indirect value: refers to the services that support the products that are consumed, this includes
ecosystems services like climate control, pollution attenuation, water purification, flood
control, nutrient cycling and soil formation.

The value of biodiversity can studied under the following titles:

(a) Consumptive:
These are the values of biodiversity where its products can be harvested and consumed
directly. Example: Food, fuel and drugs. These goods are consumed in the surrounding
areas.
Food:
(i) Plants: The most essential value of biological resources particularly plants are providing
is food for humans and fodder for animals. Chiefly three crops i.e. wheat, maize and rice
compose more than two–third of the food requirement all over the world.
(ii) Fish: Fish and fish products have been the largest source of protein in the world since
ages.
 (b) Fuel:
Forests provide wood which is used as a fuel. Additionally fossil fuels like coal, petroleum,
natural gas are also product of biodiversity which are consumed directly by humans.
(c) Drugs and medicines:
The traditional system of medicine like ayurveda Unani and Siddha utilizes plants or their
extracts directly. In Homeopathy, the many drugs are derived from plants. E. g. Quinine
(anti malaria drug) is obtained from cinchona tree; Penicillin (antibiotic) is derived from
Pencillium, a fungus. Vinblastin and vincristine (anti cancer drugs) have been obtained
from catharanthus plant which has anti cancer alkaloids.

(b) Productive:
These are the direct use values where the products from biodiversity are commercially sold
in market. Many industries are dependent upon these products. Example- Paper, pulp, silk,
textile and leather industry etc.
(c) Social:

Many plants and animals are considered holy and sacred in India and are worshipped like
Tulsi, peepal, cow, snake etc. In Indian society great cultural value is given to

fisheries biogeochemical cycling.

Biogeochemical cycling in fisheries refers to the processes through which essential nutrients and
elements are exchanged between living organisms (biota) and their environment within aquatic
ecosystems. These cycles are crucial for the health and productivity of fisheries, as they directly
influence the availability of nutrients that support marine life, from plankton to fish and beyond.

Here are key aspects of biogeochemical cycling in fisheries:

1. Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon are cycled through
marine ecosystems via various biological, chemical, and physical processes. Phytoplankton
and other primary producers play a significant role in nutrient uptake and recycling through
processes like photosynthesis and respiration.
2. Role of Fisheries: Fisheries interact with biogeochemical cycles in several ways. Fishing
activities can disrupt nutrient cycling by removing key species from the ecosystem, altering
predator-prey dynamics and nutrient flow pathways. Overfishing, for example, can lead to
imbalances in nutrient availability and ecosystem productivity.
3. Eutrophication: Excessive nutrient inputs from human activities (like agriculture and
sewage) can lead to eutrophication, where nutrient levels become so high that algae blooms
occur. These blooms can deplete oxygen levels in the water, leading to "dead zones" that are
harmful to fish and other marine life.
4. Climate Change: Climate change affects biogeochemical cycles in fisheries by altering ocean
temperatures, currents, and chemistry. These changes impact the distribution of nutrients and
species, affecting fish populations and the overall health of fisheries.
5. Management and Conservation: Sustainable fisheries management considers
biogeochemical cycles to maintain ecosystem health and productivity. This includes measures
to prevent overfishing, protect critical habitats, and reduce nutrient pollution to preserve
natural nutrient cycling processes.

Understanding and managing biogeochemical cycles in fisheries are essential for ensuring the
sustainability of marine ecosystems and the long-term viability of fisheries as a valuable natural
resource.
Threat to biodiversity,

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY:
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period the
earth has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, species have died out and have been
replaced by others. However, the rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process,
keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444 million years. The process of extinction has
become particularly fast in the recent years of civilization. In this century the human impact has been
so severe that thousands of species are becoming extinct annually. One of the estimates by the noted
ecologist puts figure of extinction at 10000 species per year or 27 per day. These amazing figures
raise an alarm regarding the serious threat to biodiversity. Over the last 150 years the rate of
extinction has escalated more dramatically. If the present 43 trend continues we would lose 1/3rd to
2/3rd of our current biodiversity by the middle of twenty first century.
Following are the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity:

1. Loss of habitat:

Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of biodiversity loss. Billions of
hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the past years for conservation into
agriculture lands, pastures, settlement areas or development projects. These natural forests and
grasslands were the natural homes of thousands of species which perished due to loss of their natural
habitat. Severe damage has been caused to wetlands thinking them to be

useless ecosystems. The unique rich biodiversity of the wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are under
the most serious threat today. The wetlands are destroyed due to draining, filling and pollution
thereby causing huge biodiversity loss. Sometimes the loss of habitat is in installments so that the
habitat is divided into small and scattered patches, a phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation.
There are many wild life species such as bears and large cats that require large territories so subsist.
They get badly threatened as they breed only in the interiors of the forests. Due to habitat
fragmentation many song birds are vanishing. There has been a rapid disappearance of tropical
forests in our country also, at a rate of about 0.6% per year. With the current rate of loss of forest
habitat, it is estimated that 20-25% of the global flora would be lost within few years. Marine
diversity is also under serious threat due to large scale destruction of the fragile breeding and feeding
grounds of our oceanic fish and other species, as a result of human intervention.

2. POACHING

Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals i.e. poaching is another
threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling
of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products worth millions of
dollars per year continues, The developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest
source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of wildlife. The rich countries in Europe and North
America and some affluent countries in Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major
importers of the wildlife products or wildlife itself. The trading of such wild life products is highly
profit making for the poachers who just hunt these prohibited wild lives and smuggle it to other
countries mediated through mafia. The worst part is that for every live animal that actually gets into
the market about 50 additional animals are caught and killed.

3. MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS

We have discussed about the need to preserve and protect wildlife. However, sometimes we come
across conflicting situations when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to man and
 under such conditions it becomes very difficult for the forest department to pacify the affected
villages and gain local support for wildlife conservation. Instances of man animal conflicts keep on
coming to lime light from several states in our country. In Sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were
killed in the last 5 years by elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 95 elephants in the border
region of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore have been reported recently. The man-elephant
conflict in this region has arisen because of massive damage done by the elephants to the farmer‘s
cotton and sugarcane crops. The agonized villagers electrocute the elephants and sometimes hide
explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode as the elephants intrude into their fields. In fact,
more killings are done by locals than by poachers. Recently, in early 2004, a man-eating tiger
reported to kill 16 Nepalese people and one 4 year old child inside the Royal Chitwan National Part,
240 Km South-west of Kathmandu. The park renowned for its wildlife conservation effort has
become a zone of terror for the locals. Similar incidents were reported near Sanjay Gandhi National
Park, Borivali, and Mumbai where similar incidents of human killings especially small children was
reported. At

 Extinction
Extinction is the global loss of a species. Five mass extinctions have occurred in geological
history, and extinction rates were particular high during these events. Earth is currently
experiencing a sixth mass extinction, which is driven by human activities. When mass
extinctions are not occurring, extinction still occurs at a low rate, the background extinction
rate. The local elimination of a species (extirpation) is also of conservation concern.
 Measures of Biodiversity Loss
A common means of assessing biodiversity loss involves classifying species based on
extinction risk. The Red List includes nine such categories. The species at greatest risk of
extinction are called critically endangered, followed by endangered, vulnerable, and near
threatened species. Biodiversity can also be gauged at the ecosystem level, both in terms of
area and ecosystem diversity.
 Habitat Loss
Habitat loss includes habitat destruction, altering the physical environment such that a species
can no longer live there, and habitat fragmentation, which involves dividing a habitat into
discontinuous patches.
 Overexploitation
Overexploitation involves removing organisms at a faster rate than they can be replenished.
Examples include the poaching of elephants, unsustainable hunting for bush meat,
overfishing, and overcollection of slow-growing plants and fungi.
 Pollution
Pollution is the release of harmful chemicals or other materials into the environment. Some
types of air pollution results in acid deposition and climate change. Nutrient pollution of
water bodies due to fertilizer overuse results in eutrophication.
 Invasive Species
Invasive species are those occurring outside of their historical distribution that cause
ecological and/or economic harm. Invasive species can overpredate or outcompete native
species, sometimes causing their extinction or extirpation. Examples of invasive species
include the Asian carp, zebra mussels, Bd (which causes a fungal disease in amphibians),
purple loosestrife, and the European starling. Biological control employs other organisms to
control invasive species and has had successes and fa
 Climate Change
 The release of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, when burning fossil fuels
for energy causes climate change. Not only does climate change involve an increase in
average global temperature, but it also results in unpredictable weather patterns. Climate
change threatens biodiversity through a variety of mechanisms and can cause species range
shifts, mismatched biotic interactions, sea level rise, and ocean acidification.

natural & anthropogenic disturbance,

Natural disturbances impact many forms and are present on a broad scale. Generally, plant
community interaction can be seen as a kind of disturbance. For example, the wind carrying a plant
seed onto new ground, the movements of predators such as wolves causing their prey to run for safety,
and the beak of a woodpecker making openings for fungi in a tree are all kinds of disturbances. The
word tends to have negative connotations, so it is important to recognize that the right kinds of
disturbance are beneficial and essential to the long-term health of all ecosystems. Some major natural
causes of disturbance are wind, fire, water, insects, and disease.

Abiotic disturbance is a non-living factor that is majorly caused by the natural and integral parts of the
forest structure and community that have significant impacts, positive and negative. They primarily
influence the forest‘s structure, composition, and functioning, and they can be essential for
maintaining biological diversity and facilitating the regeneration of the forest.

Biotic Disturbance Forest structure and the ability of forests to offer ecosystem services can be altered
by biotic disturbances (such as insects, diseases, and wildlife herbivory). However, the paucity of
reliable and timely disturbance data at large spatial scales limits impact estimates.

Anthropogenic disturbances significantly affect the plant community‘s structure and function.
Floristic composition is considered one of the major distinguishing characteristics of a community,
and, therefore, any depletion of biodiversity is bound to alter the community's attributes. Because of
the growing threat to biodiversity, it is important to see how natural communities and their structural
attributes are affected by the progressive erosion of biodiversity caused by anthropogenic
disturbances. Some major anthropogenic disturbances are clear-cutting, forest clearing, and invasive
species into plant communities. Some major anthropogenic activities in the last 10 years have been
large tree cover decades all over the world. Human settlement is disturbing a large amount of the
forest. Due to the increase in the rate of population growth and migration, there is a dramatic increase
in the population. Tremendous pressure has been exerted on the country‘s natural resources due to the
population expansion rate and agroforestry practices. In general, farmers‘ use of the plants for green
fodder, fuel wood, leaf litter, timber, and pole wood had significant influences on decreasing biomass
and plant diversity and changing the species distribution pattern. In the middle hilly region, plants,
green foliage, and fodder are used for large-scale fodder purposes for cattle, goats, and sheep,
especially during the winter season (November–March). When the biomass removal is too severe, the
trees‘ morphology, health, and regeneration ability are seriously compromised, resulting in a severely
altered forest structure.

Conservation of biodiversity,

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY:
The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic, ecological
and optional importance emphasizes the need of its conservation. Gradually we are realizing that
wildlife is not just ‗a game to be hunted‘, rather it is a gift of nature to be nurtured and enjoyed.
There are two approaches to biodiversity conservation:

a) In situ conservation: In situ conservation (within habitat): In-situ conservation, the conservation
of species in their natural habitats, is considered the most appropriate way of conserving
biodiversity. Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an underlying
condition for the conservation of biodiversity. That's why protected areas form a central element of
any national strategy to conserve biodiversity. This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna
in nature itself e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc

b) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats): Ex-situ conservation literally means, "Off-site

conservation". It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing
part of the population from a threatened habitat and placing it in a new location, which may be a wild
area or within the care of humans. While ex-situ conservation comprises some of the oldest and best
known conservation methods, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods.

Ex situ conservation, using sample populations, is done through establishment of gene banks, which
include genetic resources centres, zoo‘s, botanical gardens, cultue collections etc.

Advantages of in situ conservation

o It aids in maintaining gene banks.
o It is vital for Maintenance of species and checks its extinction.
o It helps in preservation of genetic variability.
o It helps in preserving the quality of life for millions of forest dwellers.
o In situ conservation helps to supply materials to restore plants.
o Advantages of ex-situ conservation
o Efficient and reproducible.
o Feasible for medium and long-term secure storage.
o Wide diversity of each target taxonomy conserved.
o Easy access for characterization, evaluation, and utilization little maintenance.
o Supply material for various purposes to remove or reduce pressure from wild collecting.
o Produce material for reintroduction, reinforcement, habitat restoration and management.

National parks,

National parks in India are International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) category
II protected areas. India's first national park was established in 1936, now known as Jim Corbett
National Park, in Uttarakhand. In 1970, India had only five national parks. In 1972, India enacted
the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger in 1973 to safeguard the habitats of conservation reliant
species and currently there are 106 national parks in India. Further legislation strengthening protection
for wildlife was introduced in the 1980s.

wild life sanctuaries,

A wildlife sanctuary is an area where animal habitats and their surroundings are protected from any
sort of disturbance. The capturing, killing and poaching of animals is strictly prohibited in these
regions.

They aim at providing a comfortable living to the animals. India has beautiful wildlife sanctuaries,
with dense forests, large rivers, high and beautiful mountains. Few of the these in India are mentioned
here.

Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

[Link]. Name of Wildlife Sanctuaries State

1. Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary Rajasthan

2. Chilika Lake Bird Sanctuary Odisha

3. Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala

4. Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary Gujarat

5. Govind Wildlife Sanctuary Uttarakhand

6. Madumalai Sanctuary Tamil Nadu

7. Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary Kerala

Tourism is not permitted in a wildlife sanctuary. People are not allowed unescorted there. The main
objective of establishing a wildlife sanctuary is to educate humans as to how to treat the animals. The
animals are taken care of and allowed to live peacefully in their natural habitats.
Importance of Wildlife Sanctuaries

There are a number of reasons for establishing wildlife sanctuaries. Some of the reasons are listed
below:

 The wildlife sanctuaries are established to protect the endangered species.

 It is quite difficult to always relocate the animals from their natural habitat, therefore,
protecting them in their natural environment is advantageous.

 The endangered species are specially monitored in the wildlife sanctuaries. If they reproduce
and grow in number while under protection, few specimens can be kept for breeding in the
conservation parks for their survival.

 Biologist activities and researches are permitted in the wildlife sanctuaries so that they can
learn about the animals living there.

 A few sanctuaries take in injured and abandoned animals and rehabilitate them to health
before releasing them in the forest.

 Wildlife sanctuaries preserve the endangered species and protect them from humans and
predators.

Protection of Endangered Species

Many species of plants and animals are on the verge of extinction. Such creatures are conserved in the
wildlife sanctuaries. Various sanctuaries have been established such as the Fleurieu peninsula
sanctuary is maintained to protect sheoak habitat for glossy black cockatoos.

Conservation of Biodiversity

The landowners of a wildlife sanctuary are involved in:

 Production and distribution of electricity.

 Horticulture, grazing and farming enterprises

 Wine production

 Organic horticulture

Ecotourism

Many sanctuaries are involved in ecotourism. They offer accommodation, tour guides, nature walks,
etc.
Education and Public use

The sanctuaries that are created on public land are involved in public use along with the conservation
of biodiversity. For eg., golf courses, picnic areas, lakes for boating and swimming.

Thus we know, that a wildlife sanctuary is one of the finest ways of preserving the endangered
species.

zoological gardens,

Zoological parks:

1. A zoological park is a facility in which animals are placed within enclosures, cared for,
displayed to the public, and may be used for the study.
2. It is an ex-situ conservation of animals where animals are taken out of their natural habitats.
3. They are used for the maintenance of wild animals and the reproduction of endangered
species.

gene banks,

o The National Gene Bank was established in the year 1996 to preserve the seeds of Plant
Genetic Resources (PGR) for future generations, and has the capacity to preserve about
one million germplasm in the form of seeds.

 Germplasm is living tissue from which new plants can be grown.

o NBPGR is meeting the need of in-situ and ex-situ germplasm conservation through
Delhi Headquarters and 10 regional stations in the country.

 In situ and ex situ conservation focuses on the maintenance of species

diversity within or away from their natural habitats, respectively.
 Significance:

o Presently, it is protecting 4.52 lakh accessions, of which 2.7 lakh are Indian
germplasm and the rest have been imported from other countries.

 An accession is a single, collected variety or varieties of a wild plant, a landrace

or a plant variety that has been produced by selective breeding, more commonly
known as a cultivar.
 Functioning:
 o The NGB has four kinds of facilities, namely, Seed Genebank (- 18°C), Cryogenebank
(-170°C to -196°C), In vitro Genebank (25°C) and Field Genebank, to cater to long-
term as well as medium-term conservation.
o It stores different crop groups such as cereals, millets, medicinal and aromatic plants
and narcotics, etc.
 Other Facilities:

o The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway houses the world’s largest collection of
seeds.
o India’s seed vault is at Chang La (Ladakh) in the Himalayas.
o National Animal Gene Bank, established at the National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources (NBAGR - Karnal, Haryana), has the objective of conserving the indigenous
livestock biodiversity.

 NBAGR is one of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institutes.

pollen culture,

Introduction

Tissue culture is such a fascinating technology to clone plants or produce genetically identical plants.
The exciting part is that any part of the plant can be used in the process to regenerate a whole plant.

What you just need to take care of is sterile conditions and a proper environment to allow plants to
grow and develop properly.

Based on the part of the plant used in the process, tissue culture is of different types: shoot tip culture,
hairy root culture, meristem culture, embryo culture, pollen culture, and anther culture.

In this article, we will delve more into the pollen culture technique and learn about its application,
advantages, and disadvantages.

What is Pollen Culture?

Pollen is a microspore produced by seed plants that appear in the form of dust. They are extensively
used as an explant to produce haploid plants.
Figure: A labeled illustration of a flower.

During the process, flower buds are collected, surface sterilized, and anther lobes are dissected. Then,
the anther lobes are squeezed using a scalpel in a small tube or container, containing nutrient media,
to collect the microspore.

The microscope form callus into the nutrient media, which develops into haploid plantlets when
grown through embryogenesis or organogenesis technique.

The ability of pollen grain to induce plant development was first realized in 1953 by W. Tulecke. He
observed that mature pollen grains of Ginkgo biloba can be induced to proliferate in nutrient culture
media in lab conditions to form haploid calli.

General Procedure of Pollen Culture

Here‘s the general procedure for performing pollen cultures. However, the process might differ based
on the plant species you‘re working on:

 Collect anthers (at least 50) from flower buds in a small beaker containing 20ml of the liquid
basal medium (MS or Nitsch medium).
 Press anthers against the side of the beaker to squeeze out pollens.
 The homogenized anthers are then filtered through a nylon sieve to remove the anther tissue
debris.
 Centrifuge the pollen suspension at 500-800 rpm/min for five minutes. Discard the supernatant
and keep the pellet containing pollens. Then suspend it in a liquid media and wash it twice by
centrifugation. Repeat the process twice.
 Pipette off a 2.5ml pollen suspension and spread it on a Petri dish with a soft agar medium. You
can also use a liquid medium to grow pollens.
 Incubate cultures at 27-30 degrees celsius under the low intensity of white cool light.
 After 30 days, you will observe young embryoids that you can use to regenerate plantlets.
Figure: An illustration of the anther and pollen culture for haploid plant production.

Applications

Here‘re some applications of pollen culture:

  Production of haploid plants: It‘s one of the major applications of pollen and anther culture. It‘s
mainly because conventional or traditional breeding methods are time-taking as they take many
generations of inbreeding or backcrossing.

Why one of the extensive applications of pollen culture is haploid production?

It‘s mainly because pollens are haploid, so whatever plants grown using them as explants turn out to
be haploid. The technique has been used to obtain haploid cultures of barley, wheat, and rice. You can
also obtain homozygous diploids by doubling the chromosome number of haploids.

 Transformation: When used in producing transgenic plant formation, it can be less time-
consuming.
 The technique has applications in mutation studies and produces secondary metabolites.
 Crop improvement: The pollen culture technique has been employed to enhance the quality of
vegetable and cereal crops such as asparagus, sweet pepper, watermelon, cabbage, broccoli,
wheat, and others.

Advantages

 Simple
 Requires minimal time and enables the production of numerous haploids within a short period.
 Highly receptive, the majority of anthers subjected to cultivation exhibit a response.
 By relying on pollen culture, the possibility of chimerism and callus formation from the anther
walls is eliminated.
 Disadvantages

 The extraction of anthers without causing damage requires expertise and is regarded as a
challenging task.
 This method hasn‘t been found successful with cereal crops.
 Limited genetic variation: Since pollen culture produces haploid plants, there is limited genetic
variation among the resulting plants. This can limit the ability to develop new and diverse plant
varieties.
 Limited applicability: Pollen culture may not be applicable to all plant species (such as cereal
crops), and success rates may vary between different species and cultivars.

ecological restoration,

Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded,
damaged, or destroyed.

Ecosystems are dynamic communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms interacting with their
physical environment as a functional unit.

These communities can be damaged, degraded, or destroyed by human activity.

 Damage refers to an acute and obvious harmful impact upon an ecosystem such as selective logging,
road building, poaching, or invasions of non-native species.
 Degradation refers to chronic human impacts resulting in the loss of biodiversity and the disruption
of an ecosystem‘s structure, composition, and functionality. Examples include: long-term grazing
impacts, long-term over fishing or hunting pressure, and persistent invasions by non-native species.
 Destruction is the most severe level of impact, when degradation or damage removes all macroscopic
life and commonly ruins the physical environment. Ecosystems are destroyed by such activities as
land clearing, urbanization, coastal erosion, and mining.
Ecological restoration seeks to initiate or accelerate ecosystem recovery following damage,
degradation, or destruction.

Restoration practitioners do not carry out the actual work of ecosystem recovery. Rather, they create
the conditions needed for recovery so the plants, animals, and microorganisms can carry out the work
of recovery themselves. Assisting recovery can be as simple as removing an invasive species or
reintroducing a lost species or a lost function (like fire); or as complex as altering landforms, planting
vegetation, changing the hydrology, and reintroducing wildlife.

The goal of ecological restoration is to return a degraded ecosystem to its historic trajectory, not its
historic condition. The ecosystem may not necessarily recover to its former state since contemporary
ecological realities, including global climate change, may cause it to develop along an altered
trajectory, just as these same realities may have changed the trajectory of nearby undisturbed
ecosystems. History plays an important role in restoration, but contemporary conditions must also be
taken into consideration.

When is restoration complete?

Ecological restoration aims to re-establish a self-organizing ecosystem on a trajectory to reach full

recovery. While restoration activities can often place a degraded ecosystem on an initial trajectory of
recovery relatively quickly, full recovery of the ecosystem can take years, decades, or even hundreds
of years. For example, while we can initiate a forest restoration process by planting trees, for full
recovery to be achieved, the site should be a fully functioning forest with mature trees in the age-
classes representative of a mature native forest. If there were 500-year-old trees in the forest that was
destroyed, then the restoration should logically take hundreds of years to achieve full recovery.
During that recovery period, unforeseen barriers to recovery may be encountered, or additional
restoration activities may become possible at later stages of development. Thus, while individual
restoration activities may be completed, in most cases the restoration process continues as the
ecosystem recovers and matures.

Restoration is not a substitute for conservation.

While we can successfully restore biodiversity, structure, and function to a degraded ecosystem,
ecological restoration is not a substitute for conservation, nor should the promise of restoration be
used to justify destruction or unsustainable use. In reality, restoration may not succeed in re-
establishing the full assemblage of native species or the full extent of the original ecosystem‘s
structure and function.

social forestry.
Social Forestry is the planting of trees. It refers to using idle and unused lands to protect valuable
forests from exploitation. This involves cultivating fast-growing trees to fulfill the requirements of
fodder and fuelwood, ensuring sustainable resource management. Social forestry consists of managing
forests for the well-being of local communities, encompassing forest management, protection, and
afforestation of barren lands. Its primary aim is to promote environmental and social development in
rural areas. The key objective is cultivating trees and plantations to meet the growing demands for
timber, wood, food, and fuel, thereby reducing pressure on traditional forest areas
Social Forestry is among the most critical topics for the UPSC IAS exam. It covers a significant part
of the social issues subject in the Mains General Studies Paper-1 syllabus and General Studies Paper-1
of the UPSC Prelims Syllabus.

In this article, let us look at the objectives of social forestry, its benefits, Types, Implementation of
social forestry in India, Government initiatives, and drawbacks of social forestry for the UPSC IAS
Exam.

Check this linked article on the UN Convention on Biological Diversity now.

What is Social Forestry?

A practice that involves local communities in the management of forests. Aimed at meeting both
environmental and social objectives. Often focused on tree planting, afforestation, and sustainable
forest management. Designed to benefit local populations by providing resources like wood and non-
timber forest products. A strategy to reduce deforestation and promote conservation. A way to
empower communities and improve their livelihoods. Collaborative and community-driven forestry
initiatives.

Objectives of Social Forestry

Social forestry schemes have the following important objectives:

o To improve the environment to safeguard agriculture from the adverse effect of various
climatic factors.
o To expand fuel wood supply for domestic use, small timber for rural housing, fodder for
livestock, and minor forest produce for local small-scale businesses.
o To enhance the natural beauty of the landscape and create recreational forests for the
advantage of rural and urban populations.
o To provide employment opportunities for untrained workers.
o To effect the rehabilitation of lands.
o Raising the standard of living and the quality of life of the people living in the rural and urban
areas.

Ecosystem: Definition,

Ecosystem Definition

“An ecosystem is defined as a community of lifeforms in concurrence with non-living components,

interacting with each other.”

What is an Ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment. In other words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions
between organisms and their environment. The term ―Ecosystem‖ was first coined by [Link], an
English botanist, in 1935.
Read on to explore the structure, components, types and functions of the ecosystem in the notes
provided below.

Structure of the Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the organisation of both biotic and abiotic
components. This includes the distribution of energy in our environment. It also includes the
climatic conditions prevailing in that particular environment.

The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely:

 Biotic Components
 Abiotic Components
The biotic and abiotic components are interrelated in an ecosystem. It is an open system where the
energy and components can flow throughout the boundaries.

Biotic Components

Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on nutrition, biotic
components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs as they can
produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Consequently, all other organisms higher
up on the food chain rely on producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary
consumers.
 Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers for food.
  Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy. They can either be
carnivores or omnivores.
 Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for
food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or omnivores.

 Quaternary consumers are present in some food chains. These organisms prey on
tertiary consumers for energy. Furthermore, they are usually at the top of a food chain
as they have no natural predators.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the
dead and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help
in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil,
minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1.
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
stability.

2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.

3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.

4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.

5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involve the
exchange of energy.

So the functional units of an ecosystem or functional components that work together in an ecosystem
are:

 Productivity – It refers to the rate of biomass production.

 Energy flow – It is the sequential process through which energy flows from one trophic level
to another. The energy captured from the sun flows from producers to consumers and then to
decomposers and finally back to the environment.
 Decomposition – It is the process of breakdown of dead organic material. The top-soil is the
major site for decomposition.
 Nutrient cycling – In an ecosystem nutrients are consumed and recycled back in various
forms for the utilisation by various organisms.
Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of

miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial
ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem

A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and microorganisms that live
in coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem

In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands and
tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem

Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of ecosystem is found in the Arctic or
mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and scarce vegetation.
The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two
types, namely:
 1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem

The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem

The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and
greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Also check: Habitat Diversity

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain

The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant life. The
plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise their food.

During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on
through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually,
to an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.

Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.
2. Ecological Pyramids

An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.

The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer level
are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.

The base of the ecological pyramid comprises the producers, followed by primary and secondary
consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary consumers are
at the very apex of the food chain.

The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers and similarly, the primary consumers
outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same trend as the
other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary consumers.

For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mouse, which are comparatively less in number. The
mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex predators
such as the brown snake eagle.

In essence:

Grasshopper →Mouse→ Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web

Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food chains within a single
ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains. In a marine
environment, phytoplankton forms the primary producer.

estuarine,
Estuaries belong to the world‘s most productive natural habitats. They constitute ecologically diverse
ecosystems, are home to unique plant and animal communities and have a great intrinsic value. The
most common definition applied to the term ‗estuary‘ is a semi-enclosed body of water which has an
open connection with the sea and in which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived
from land drainage (e.g. rivers) (Pritchard, 1967). Estuaries are transitional environments which are
subject to both marine (tides, waves, the influx of saline water and sediment) and riverine influences
(influx of fresh water and sediment).

The influx of nutrient-rich seawater and freshwater often yields high nutrient levels, both in the water
column and in the bed. Moreover, in most of these shallow water environments, the intensity of the
physical agents reinforces the connections between benthic (i.e. bed-related) and pelagic (i.e. water
column-related) environments by increasing material processing, nutrient cycling and
erosion/deposition. This explains the high primary and secondary productivity of these systems. The
physical, chemical and biological gradients typically present in estuarine ecosystems lead to a diverse
and complex mosaic of habitats.

Each estuary has a unique combination of features derived from its shape, catchment, connection to
the sea, tidal regime and exposure. Different typologies are used to classify estuaries. One is based on
how they were formed (e.g. coastal plain estuaries, fjords and lagoons), known as
their geomorphology. Another typology (Bowden, 1967) starts from the water circulation
patterns (e.g. salt wedge and different stages of mixing). Others consider the relative importance of
waves and tides, or the large-scale morphology

lotic,
lentic.

Lentic ecosystem (also called the lacustrine ecosystem or the still water ecosystem) and lotic
ecosystem (also called the riverine ecosystem) are two types of water ecosystems, the first dealing
with still water ecosystems and the second dealing with flowing water ecosystems. Together, they
are the two ecosystems that make up the study of freshwater ecology, also known as aquatic
ecology.

Lentic Features

A lentic ecosystem entails a body of standing water, ranging from ditches, seeps, ponds, seasonal
pools, basin marshes and lakes. Deeper waters, such as lakes, may have layers of ecosystems,
influenced by light. Ponds, due to their having more light penetration, are able to support a diverse
range of water plants.

Lotic Features

A lotic ecosystem can be any kind of moving water, such as a run, creek, brook, river, spring,
channel or stream. The water in a lotic ecosystem, from source to mouth, must have atmospheric
gases, turbidity, longitudinal temperature gradation and material dissolved in it.

Lotic ecosystems have two main zones, rapids and pools. Rapids are the areas where the water is
fast enough to keep the bottom clear of materials, while pools are deeper areas of water where the
currents are slower and silt builds up.

Considerations

Like any ecosystems, lentic and lotic ecosystems can be destroyed through natural or human
interaction. Lentic and lotic systems may succumb to such things as climate change, being dammed,
drained, filled or undergo an invasive species invasion.

Lotic Ecosystems
•••

Lotic ecosystems are the systems with rapid flowing waters that move in a unidirectional way such
as rivers and streams. These environments harbor numerous species of insects such as mayflies,
stoneflies and beetles which have developed adapted features such as weighted cases to survive the
environment . Several species of fishes such as eel, trout and minnow are found here. Various
mammals such as beavers, otters and river dolphins inhabit lotic ecosystems.

Lentic Ecosystems
•••

Lentic ecosystems include all standing water habitats such as lakes and ponds. These ecosystems
are home to algae, rooted and floating-leaved plants and invertebrates such as crabs and shrimps.
Amphibians such as frogs and salamanders and reptiles like alligators and water snakes are also
found here.

Abiotic & biotic components of ecosystem.

Ecosystem - Components Of Ecosystem

This topic explains about the ecosystem and the components of ecosystem. An ecosystem is a group
or community composed of living and non-living things and their interactions with each other. They
can be natural as well as artificial. Every ecosystem has two components, namely, biotic components
and abiotic components. Biotic components refer to all living organisms in an ecology while
abiotically refers to the non-living things. These biotic and abiotic interactions maintain
the equilibrium in the environment. Let‘s go through the components of the ecosystem in detail.

Table of Contents

 Components of Ecosystem
 Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Components of Ecosystem

Biotic components are the living things that have a direct or indirect influence on other organisms in
an environment. For example plants, animals, and microorganisms and their waste materials.

Abiotic components of an ecosystem include all chemical and physical elements i.e. non-living
components. Abiotic components can vary from region to region, from one ecosystem to another.
They mainly take up the role of life supporter. They determine and restrict the population growth,
number, and diversity of biotic factors in an ecosystem. Hence, they are called limiting factors.

A terrestrial ecosystem consists of abiotic factors like climate, type of soil or rock, altitude,
temperature, nutrients, and minerals, whereas abiotic components in an aquatic ecosystem include
dissolved gases, depth of water, salinity, pH of water, light intensity etc.
The significance of Biotic and Abiotic Components

Biotic components can be classified into three categories:

Producers: These include all the autotrophs. They use light energy and synthesize food on their own,
e.g. plants, green algae, etc.

Consumers: These include all the heterotrophs that directly or indirectly depend on producers for
their food. Consumers are further categorized as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites.

Decomposers: These include saprophytes which act on dead matter and decay them for their
nutrition.

The relevance of biotic and abiotic components in an environment appears when they start interacting
with each other. For example, biotic elements like plants provide food for other organisms. The soil is
the abiotic element which supports the growth of the plants by providing nutrients and other essential
elements. Biotic components depend on abiotic components for their survival and help in the
formation of abiotic factors like soil, nutrients, etc.

Food Chains and Webs

A food chain is a chain which shows how organisms are linked to each other through food. A food
web shows how two food chains are connected. A single food web consists of many food chains.
Every food chain begins with producers and ends with top carnivores.
The energy flow from one level to another level in a food chain gives the trophic level of an
ecosystem. The producers come at first trophic level followed by herbivores (primary consumers),
then small carnivores (secondary consumers) and large carnivores (tertiary consumers) occupy the
fourth trophic level.