BRIDGING PROGRAM
Analytic
Geometry
Prepared and Presented by: Engr. Reyvencer T. Reyes
COURSE OUTLINE:
CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5
Fundamentals Straight Line Circles Conics Three
to Analytic Dimensional
Geometry Solids
CHAPTER 1:
FUNDAMETALS TO
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
TOPIC OUTLINE:
The Real Number System-Graphs
Measures
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Be able to understand the basic principles of analytic geometry
Be able to solve problems involving System of Graphs and Measures
1.1The Real Number System and the
Continuum Axiom
The counting numbers 1, 2, 3, are called natural numbers. A basic assumption
here is that for every such number n there is a successor n + 1.
The counting numbers, including zero and their negatives comprise the set of
integers.
A rational number is one that can be expressed as the quotient of two
integers. (Example: 2/3 , 7/11, 6, 1, -3/5, 0.454545...)
A irrational number is one that cannot be expressed as the quotient of two
integers. (Example: √2 , π , ∛-7 ...)
The set of all rational numbers (which includes the integers) and the irrational
numbers form the set of real numbers.
1.1The Real Number System and the
Continuum Axiom
Real Numbers can be displayed as points in a line in order of its magnitude
wherein zero as the point of origin.
The continuum axiom is the assumption that all real numbers may be paired
uniquely with points on a line and conversely.
3<5 and -7 < -2
1.2 Coordinate system in the Plane
Rectangular Coordinate System- P (a,b) Polar Coordinate System- P(r, θ)
1.2 Coordinate system in the Plane
Exchange of Systems
The rectangular and polar coordinate systems may be exchanged one for the
other by making the pole and the origin coincident, and the x-axis coincident with
the initial ray as shown.
1.3 Graphs: Mathematical Statements
Equations or inequalities which relate x and y or r andθ define loci in the reference
plane. That is, the set of those points (and only those) whose roordinates satisfy such a
statement forms the graphical representation or locus of the mathematical statement.
For Example: 3x + 2y = 12 represents a
straight line: the set of all points whose
coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation.
1.3 Graphs: Mathematical Statements
As another example, r = 2 sin θ
represents a circle. A table of coordinates
satisfying the equation is given, and the
set of all such points forms the circle
shown. This circle passes through the
pole (since for θ= 0, r = 0) and has its
center at (1, π/2).
Let us determine the rectangular equation of this circle. It is convenient (and
legitimate) to multiply first by r. (Remember: r²= x²+y² and r sinθ=y)
r² = 2r sinθ
x²+y² = 2y
1.3 Graphs: Mathematical Statements
We will have occasion to determine points of the plane restricted by conditions of
the sort
{ y≤1 ; y≥x²}
The set of points common to the two sets (points whose coordinates satisfy both
∩
conditions) is called their intersection and denoted by the symbol A B. This
intersection set is shown as the cross-hatched region of the right-hand picture.
1.4 Distance. Midpoint of a Segment
Distance. Consider two points P(X₁, Y₁) and P(X₂, Y₂). The projections of the directed
segment P₁P₂ on the coordinate axes are the directed lengths X₂-X₁ and Y₂-Y₁. By
the right-triangle law (the theorem of Pythagoras). This is also known as the
distance formula.
Equation 1.1
Midpoint. Let M: (x, y) be the midpoint of the segment P₁P₂. x=(X₁+X₂)/2 ; y=(Y₁+Y₂)/2
1.4 Direction Cosines. Direction Numbers
Let α, β be angles formed by the coordinate axes and the segment P₁P₂ (or its
extension) as shown.
Equation 1.2
1.5 Angle Between Two Line Segments
Consider two lines with direction angles α₁, β₁ and α₂, β₂ respectively; and let θ be
an angle they form with each other.
Equation 1.3
1.5 Angle Between Two Line Segments
If we consider any line L₁ passing through another line L₂ then there can be two
angles θ and (180-θ)= Φ
tan θ = |[m₁-m₂]/ [1+m₁m₂]| Equation 1.4
1.5 Parallel and Perpendicular Line Segments
It is at once evident that if two line segments are parallel their direction angles as well
as their direction cosines are equal and their direction numbers are proportional;.
Conditions of a line to be parallel is that m₁=m₂
If two lines are perpendicular, θ = 90°, cos θ=0. Hence, conditions for Perpendicularity
is that the product of the slope of a line must be equal to -1. e.i m₁*m₂= -1
1.5 Slope
The angle a is designated as the inclination of P₁P₂ and tan α as the slope of the
segment. We have, if X₁≠ X₂;
1.5 Collinearity
We have now a means of testing collinearity of three (or more) points; i.e., of
determining whether or not all three lie on the same line. If P₁: (X₁, Y₁), P₂: (X₂, Y₂),
P₃: (X₃, Y₃) are collinear, the slopes of P₁P₂, P₁P₃, and P₂P₃ are equal, and conversely.
That is (X₁≠ X₂ ≠X₃);
Note that any one of the three equations is a linear combination of the other two;
i.e., collinearity is established if any two of the slopes of the three directed
segments PiPj are equal.
1.5 Area of Triangle formed by P₁P₂P₃
The area A of triangle P₁P₂P₃ may be measured as follows. Draw parallel to the
coordinate axes the sides of the rectangle circumscribing the triangle. The area of
this rectangle less the sum of its triangular areas exterior to P₁P₂P₃ is A. Thus
Note that if P₁P₂P₃ are collinear, this
determinant is 0, and conversely. Thus here is
a second device for testing collinearity of
points.
1.6 EXERCISES
1. Change x + y = 3 to polar coordinates and sketch.
2. Change r cosθ= -2 to rectangular coordinates and sketch.
3. Sketch the region of the plane such that {11≤x≤3,1<y<2}
4. Skecth the region of the plane such that {0≤ θ ≤ π/6, 0 ≤ r ≤ 4}
5. Sketch each segment whose end points are P₁: (1, 2), P₂: (3, 6) and find its (a) length,
(b) midpoint, (c) direction numbers and cosines
6. Draw and determine the area of each triangle whose vertices are the triples
(8, 9), (- 6, 1), (0, - 5)
CHAPTER 2:
STRAIGHT LINES
TOPIC OUTLINE:
Equations of a line
Distance from a point to a line
Angle Bisector
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Be able to understand the basic principles of straight line
Be able to solve problems involving straight lines
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
2.1 EQUATION OF A LINE
STANDARD EQUATION: Ax+By=C
SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM: y=mx+b
POINT SLOPE FORM: y-y₁=m (x-x₁)
TWO POINT SLOPE FORM: y-y₁= (y₂-y₁ / x₂-x₁) (x-x₁)
INTERCEPT FORM: x/a + y/b =1
2.2 DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A LINE
Let d represent the unsigned distance from P: (x₁,
y₁) to the line Ax+By+C=0. where A≠0 and B≠0.
Using the Area of the triangle formed by the P and
the intercepts -C/A and -C/B we can derived the
formula:
2.3 ANGLE BISECTORS
The bisector of an angle formed by two lines is the
locus of points equidistant from the lines. For example,
the locus of P: (x, y) bisects an angle formed by 3x + 4y -
12 = 0 and 5x + 12y - 20 = 0 if distances from P to the
lines are equal; that is, if
where we regard the radicals as presenting a choice in
sign (the +, + and -, - combinations yield the same result,
and the +, - and -, + combinations, the same). See in
which quadrant the locus or intersection bisects. In this
case the angle bisector is located at Q1 (+,+)
2.4 EXERCISES
1. Find direction cosines and angles measured from the axes of the following
lines. Draw a sketch of each.
a) (x-1)/ 5 =(y-2)/12
b) y=3x
c) 2x-y=1
2. Sketch and write the equation of a line determined by the given conditions
a) m=4; x=0, y=0
b) m=-3; x=4, y=0
c) Through (3,2) and (-2, 5)
2.4 EXERCISES
3. Find the distance from the given point to the given line.
a) (5,4), x+2y=1
b) (-2,1), x-2y=4
4. Find the distance between the lines 2x+3y=4 and 2x+3y=7
5. Find the equations of the bisectors of the angles formed by the pairs of
lines 3x-4y=6 and 5x-12y=4
CHAPTER 3:
CIRCLES
TOPIC OUTLINE:
General Equation
Completing the Square
Polar Form
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Be able to understand the basic principles of a circle
Be able to solve problems involving circles
3.1 GENERAL EQUATION
For general utility the circle is one of the most important of all plane curves.
Fortunately, it may be represented either in rectangular or polar coordinates by
relatively simple equations.
3.1 GENERAL EQUATION
an expression indicating that all points P(x, y) are distant R units from (h, k).
Conversely, all points P whose coordinates satisfy the General equation, lie at the
constant distance R from (h, k). The following is an important alternation of the
general equation. We may write (2) as
3.2 COMPLETING THE SQUARE
3.3 POLAR FORM
(B) Polar Coordinates. The polar Form of the general equation (3) is
(since x2 + y2 = r2, x = r cos B, y = r sin 0)
3.3 FAMILIES OF CIRCLES
The general equation of circle (x2+y2+Ax+By+C=0) contains three essential
constants whose values may be assigned or determined by certain specifications
Evidently, a circle* may be specified if subjected to three conditions. It may, for
example,
(A) pass through three given points (not collinear)
(B) pass through two given points and be tangent to a given line
(C) be tangent to three given lines (not concurrent or all parallel)
3.3 FAMILIES OF CIRCLES
(A) pass through three given points (not collinear)
3.3 FAMILIES OF CIRCLES
(B) pass through two given points and be tangent to a given line
3.3 FAMILIES OF CIRCLES
(B) pass through two given points and be tangent to a given line
3.3 FAMILIES OF CIRCLES
(C) be tangent to three given lines (not concurrent or all parallel)
3.4 EXERCISES
[Link] the center and radius of each of the following and sketch
a) x² + y² - 2x + 3y = 0
b) x² + y² = x
c) r²+2r cos θ-3=0
2. Find the equation of the circle passing through the origin and through the points of
contact of tangents from the origin to the circle. x² + y² - 11x + 13y + 17 = 0
3. Find the standard equation of the circle with center at (1,4) and passes through (-2,5)
4. Find the Equation of tangent line to the circle x² + y² =9 with y-intercept at 5.
CHAPTER 4:
CONICS
TOPIC OUTLINE:
The Conic Sections
Circle
Ellipse
Parabola
Hyperbola
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Be able to understand the basic principles of a conics
Be able to solve problems involving conics
4.1 THE CONIC SECTIONS
The family of curves formed by plane sections of a right circular cone are
of three types: the Ellipse (including the circle), the Parabola, and the
Hyperbola. Of all curves, these are by far the most widely encountered
and applied. Applications are to be found in engineering structures,
microscope and telescope lenses, sound receivers and amplifiers,
searchlight reflectors, radar, Loran (Long Range Navigation), cams, and
gears.
4.1 THE CONIC SECTIONS
Four Ways of knowing conics
sections:
1. By Cutting Plane
Parallel to the Base: Circle
Parallel to the element:
Parabola
Parallel to the axis: Hyberbola
Any angle provided not parallel
to the base, element and axis:
Ellipse
4.1 THE CONIC SECTIONS
2. By Eccentricity (e=f/d) 3. By Discriminant (Ax² + Bxy+Cy²+Dx+Ey+F=0)
e=0 : Circle B² -4AC <0 : Circle if A=C
e=1 : Parabola B² -4AC =0 : Parabola
e>1 : Hyperbola B² -4AC >0 : Hyperbola
e<1 : Ellipse B² -4AC <0 : Ellipse if A≠C
e=∞: Line
4.1 THE CONIC SECTIONS
4. By Coefficient of the Equation (Ax² + Bxy+Cy²+Dx+Ey+F=0)
A=C : Circle if A=C
A≠C (same sign) : Ellipse
either A or C is zero : Parabola
opposite sign A or C : Hyperbola
4.2 CIRCLE
General Equation: Ax²+Ay²+Dx+Ey+F=0
Standard Equation: (x-h)²+(y-k)² = r²
Center (h,k): h= -D/2A k=-E/2A
Radius (R): r² = h²+k²-F/A
r² = (D²+E²-4AF)/ 4A²
4.3 ELLIPSE
General Equation: Ax²+Cy²+Dx+Ey+F=0
Standard Equation: (x-h)²/a² +(y-k)²/b² =1
if a>b Horizontal
if b>a Vertical
Center (h,k): h= -D/2A k=-E/2C
Radius (R): r² = h²+k²-F/A
r² = (D²+E²-4AF)/ 4A²
4.3 ELLIPSE
Semi major (a) and semi minor:
a= √C and b=√A if C>A
a=√A and b=√C if A>C
Area and Perimeter of Ellipse:
A= πab or A= π √AC
P= 2π √[(a²+b²)/2]
4.3 ELLIPSE
Length of Latus Rectum (LR):
LR = (2b²)/a
Focal Distance (c):
c= √a²-b²
Eccentricity (e):
e= c/a or e= a/d d- directrix
4.4 PARABOLA
General Equation: Ax²+Dx+Ey+F=0 x²: (+ upward, - downward)
Cy²+Dx+Ey+F=0 y²: (+ left, - right)
Standard Equation: (x-h)² = ± 4a (y-k) (+ upward, - downward)
(y-k)² = ± 4a (x-h) (+ left, - right)
Length of Latus Rectum: LR=4a
Directrix (a) : a= LR/4
4.5 HYPERBOLA
General Equation: Ax²-Cy²+Dx+Ey+F=0 +x² : ( Left and Right)
Cy²-Ax²+Dx+Ey+F=0 -x² : ( Up and Down)
Standard Equation: [(x-h)²/a²] - [(y-k)²/b²] =1 +x² : ( Left and Right)
+y² : ( Up and Down)
Center: h=-D/2A k=-E/2C
Vertices: V(h±a,k) - ( Left and Right)
V(h, k±a) - ( Up and Down)
Semi-Transverse Length (a) and
Semi-Conjugate Lenth (b):
For horizontal axis a= √-C b=√A
For vertical axis a=√-A b= √C
Length of Latus Rectum (LR):
LR= 2b²/a
Eccentricity:
e=c/a or e=a/d
Equation of Assymptotes:
y-k= m(x-h) where m= ± b/a for horizontal
m= ± a/b for vertical
4.1 DIAMETER OF THE CONICS
Ellipse:
Horizontal y= - (b/a)² (x/m)
Vertical y= - (a/b)² (x/m)
Parabola:
Horizontal y= 2a/m
Vertical x=2am
Hyperbola:
Horizontal y= (b/a)² (x/m)
Vertical y= (b/a)² (x/m)
4.1 EXERCISES
Kindly visit the link for practice problems
8.E: Conic Sections (Exercises) - Mathematics LibreTexts
CHAPTER 5:
THREE DIMENSIONAL SPACE
TOPIC OUTLINE:
Coordinate System measures
Planes and Lines
Volumes
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Be able to understand the basic principles of a three dimensional space
Be able to solve problems involving three dimensional space
5.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS-MEASURES
(A) Rectangular Coordinates
We choose three directed and mutually perpendicular
lines intersecting at 0 (the origin) for coordinate axes. The
three pairs of these lines determine three coordinate
planes.
Space is separated by these coordinate planes into
octants, in each of which are located points whose
coordinates (x, y, z) have one of the eight arrangement of
of plus and minus signs.
5.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS-MEASURES
(B) Cylindrical Coordinates
A useful set of coordinates of points P in three-space is
called cylindrical. This system is a hybrid composed of
polar coordinates in a reference plane (e.g., the xy-plane)
together with a directed distance to the point from that
plane.
As shown, we choose the xy-plane as the polar
coordinate plane; then any point P has coordinates
r, θ, z.
5.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS-MEASURES
(C) Spherical Coordinates
A third convenient system, of spherical coordinates
locates a point P by its distance ρ from a fixed point
O (the origin) and angles Φ measured from the positive
z-axis to OP(=p), and θ, measured from the positive x-axis
to the projection OQ.
The radial distance p may be either positive or negative.
5.2 DIRECTION, DIRECTION COSINES
Distance Formula:
Directional Cosines:
5.3 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINE SEGMENTS
The angle between two lines in space as the
angle formed by their parallels drawn through
the origin. If P₁ (X₁, Y₁, Z₁) and P₂ (X₂, Y₂, Z₂) are
points on their parallels (with the same sense)
through the origin and distant r₁, r₂ from O and
distant d from one another, then, by the law of
cosines.
5.4 PARALLELISM AND PERPENDICULARITY
Parallelism. It is at once evident that if two line segments are parallel, their
direction angles and cosines are equal, and conversely. Furthermore, all sets of
direction numbers of the two parallel lines are proportional. Thus, for example, if
[-1, 2, -3] and [-4, 8, -12]
are direction numbers of two lines, they are parallel.
Perpendicularity. If two lines are perpendicular, their angle θ is π/2 (or -π/2) and
cos θ = 0. The necessary and sufficient condition for perpendicularity. Thus, for
example, the two lines with direction numbers
[-1, 2, -3] and [12, 9, 2]
(-1)(12) + (2)(9) + (-3)(2) = 0
5.4 EXERCISES 1
5.4 EXERCISES 1
2. Find the distance between the following pairs of points
a) (2, 3, 1); (-4, 5, -1)
b) (-5, 2, -2); (5, -2, 2)
c) (1, 1, 1); (8, -7, -6)
3. Find the midpoint of each of the line segment in Problem No. 2.
4. Find direction numbers and direction cosines of each line segment in
Problem 2.
5. Find the angles formed by lines from the origin to
a) (0, -4, 3), (-4, 0, 3)
b) (-2, -1, 5), (2, 1, 4)
c) (6, -2, 0), (4, -1, 3)
5.5 PLANES AND LINES
A plane is the set set of points whose coordinates x, y,
and z satisfy an equation of the first degree.
Traces and Intercepts. Those points in a plane Ax + By
+ Cz + D = 0 for which z = 0 all lie in the xy-coordinate
plane. The line of these points Ax + By + D = 0 is called
a trace of the plane.
5.6 NORMAL TO A PLANE
5.6 NORMAL TO A PLANE
For Example, Find the equation of the plane containing the point (1,2,3) and having
a normal with the direction numbers [5, -4, 6]
We let P (x,y,z) be representative of all points in the plane. Then all lines with
direction numbers
[x-1, y-2, z-3] variable direction numbers
[5, -4, 6] fixed direction numbers
5(x-1) -4(y-2) +6(z-3)
5x-4y+6z-15=0 Equation of the plane
5.7 EXERCISES 2
1. Use the concept of scalar product to find the equation of the plane through
the given point with the given direction numbers for its normal. Sketch
each plane
(a) (0, 0, 0) [1, 1, 1] (d) (0, 0, 0) [-1, 0, 1]
(b) (1, 0, 0) [2, - 1, 0] (e) (0, 0, 1) [1, 2, 3]
(c) (2, -1, 1) [2, -1, 1] (f) (1, 3/2, 4) [-2/3, 1, 1/2)
5.8 DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO PLANE
5.8 DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO PLANE
5.8 DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO PLANE
5.8 DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO PLANE
5.9 EXERCISES 3
1. Find the distance from (2, 3, 4) to
(a) x+y-1=0
(b) z=2
(c) x+y+z-2=0
5.10 DETERMINATION OF EQUATION OF PLANES
5.10 DETERMINATION OF EQUATION OF PLANES
5.10 DETERMINATION OF EQUATION OF PLANES
5.11 EXERCISES 4
5.12 ASSIGNMENT
5.13 VOLUMES
5.13 VOLUMES
5.13 VOLUMES
x² + y² +z² =a²
Ellipse: V= 4/3 π ab²
Sphere: V= 4/3 π a³
Parabola: V= πk²/2 (units)³ x=k (distance from the vertex)
Congratulations for finishing the
review course for Analytic Geometry