RV Institute of Technology and Management®

RV Educational Institutions®
RV Institute of Technology and Management
(Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

JP Nagar 8th Phase, Bengaluru - 560076

Department of
Electronics & Communication Engineering

Course Name: Microwave Theory and Antennas

Course Code: BEC701

V Semester
2022 Scheme

Prepared By :
Dr. Nataraj Vijapur
Associate Professor
[Link] E&C Engg,
RVITM, Bengaluru

Dr. Sarala S
Assistant Professor
[Link] E&C Engg,
RVITM, Bengaluru

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

MODULE 4
3. POINT SOURCES AND ARRAYS
4.
MODULE 4
Point sources and arrays: Introduction, Point Sources, Power patterns, Power theorem, Radiation
Intensity, Arrays of 2 isotropic point sources, Pattern multiplication, Linear arrays of n Isotropic
sources of equal amplitude and Spacing. (Text 3: 5.1-5.6, 5.9, 5.13)
Electric Dipole: Introduction, Short Electric dipole, Fields of a short dipole. Radiation resistance of a
short dipole. Thin linear antenna (field analysis). (Text 3: 6.1-6.5)
5.

4.0 Introduction

As of now the antenna was treated as an aperture. In this chapter it is formally considered as point source and
later the concept extended to the formation of arrays of point sources. The pattern of any antenna can be regarded
as produced by an array of point sources. Here we discuss the array arrays confined to isotropic point sources,
which may represent different kind of antennas.

Point Sources:
* Antenna that doesn't have any specified shape is called "point source".

Consider an antenna and observation circle as shown in fig.4.1 where the radiated fields of antenna transverse
radially at a sufficient distance id far field whereas near fields have actual variation ignored. Provided that
observation made at the sufficient distance, any antenna regardless of size or complexity can be represented as
single point source. Far field is considered because power flow and fields are radiated outwards at this region
properly.

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Fig 4.1. Antenna and the observation

Field measurements can be done either by fixing antenna or fixing observation point but both effects are
approximately same. If in case the center of the antenna is displaced by distance 'd' as shown in fig.1, the distance
between two centers are negligible effect on the field pattern at observation circle provided that,

R >> d , R >> b and R >> λ…. (4.1)

As we discussed complete description of the far field of a source requires 3 components.

1. Eθ(θ, ϕ)
2. Eϕ(θ, ϕ)
3. (θ, ϕ)

Power Patterns:
Let transmitting antenna in free space by point source radiation located at origin of the co-ordinates as shown in
fig.4.2.
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Fig 4.2 Point source at origin.

The radiated energy streams from the source radial lines.

The time rate of energy flow per unit area is "Poynting vector or power flow density". The
magnitude of Poynting vector is equal t radial component (|S| = Sr)

* A sources that radiates energy uniformly in all directions is called "isotropic antenna".

A graph of Sr at constant radius as a function of angle is Poynting vector, power density, pattern but usually called
"power pattern".

Although the isotropic source is convenient in theory, it is not physically realizable type. Even simplest antenna
has bidirectional properties i.e., they radiate energy in some directions than others.
• In contrast with isotropic antennas, they might be called as "anisotropic antennas".
• If Sr is expressed in W/m2 , the absolute power pattern. On the other hand if it express with its reference
value then the graph is called "relative power pattern".

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Srm - maximum power in the direction.

A pattern with a maximum of unity is called "normalized pattern".

4.1 Power Theorem

If the Poynting vector is known at all points on a sphere of radius r from a point source in a lossless medium, the
total power radiated by the source is the integral over the surface of the sphere of the radial components Sref the
average poynting vector". Thus

P = ∯ S . ds (4.2)

Where , P - power radiated (W)

Sr - radial component of average poynting vector (Wm-2)
ds - infinitesimal element of area of sphere
ds = r2 Sinθ dθ dϕ (m2)

For an isotropic source, Sr is independent of θ and ϕ so

P = Sr ∯ ds (4.3)

(4.4)
This equation indicates that the magnitude of Poynting vector varies inversely proportional to the square of the
distance from point source radiator.

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Radiation Intensity:
It is defined as the power radiated by an antenna per unit solid angle. Denoted by u and unit is W/Sr.

Power Theorem for Radiation Intensity:

The total power radiated by an antenna is given by integral of radiation intensity over solid angle of the sphere.

i.e., P = ∯ u dΩ (4.5)

For an isotropic source radiation intensity remains same at any point or the surface of the sphere. Let uo be the
radiation of isotropic source then

(4.6)
Therefore, the relation between Poynting vector and radiation intensity as follows

(4.7)

Examples Of Power Patterns:

1. Unidirectional Cosine Pattern
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The radiation intensity of unidirectional cosine pattern is given as

u=um Cos θ (4.8)
where um is the maximum radiation intensity and u is having value in upper hemisphere.

• Unidirectional Sine Pattern

• The radiation intensity is given as in below equation
• The maximum radiation intensity is at θ = П/2

(4.10)

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• unidirectional Cosine squared Pattern

• The radiation intensity of unidirectional cosine pattern is given as
u=um Cos2 θ
(4.11)

• Sine squared (doughnut) Pattern

• The radiation intensity is given as in below equation

• It is also known as doughnut pattern and pattern as shown

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1. Compute the total power radiated by source having radiation intensity, U=UmCos θ. Also directivity, D.

Solution
• Therefore total power radiated is given by,
2𝜋 𝜋/2
• P=∫0 ∫0 (𝑈𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ = 𝜋Um

• Comparing with isotropic source we get,

• 𝜋Um=4𝜋𝑈𝑜
• Therefore,
• Directivity=Um/Uo=4=D

2. Compute the total power radiated by source having radiation intensity, U=Um sinθ. Also directivity, D.

Solution
• Therefore total power radiated is given by,
2𝜋 𝜋
• P=∫0 ∫0 (𝑈𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ = 𝜋2Um

• Comparing with isotropic source we get,

• 𝜋2Um=4𝜋𝑈𝑜
• Therefore,
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• Directivity=Um/Uo=D=4/𝜋=1.27

3. Compute the total power radiated by source having radiation intensity, U=Umcos2θ. Also directivity, D.

Solution
• Therefore total power radiated is given by,
2𝜋 𝜋
• P=∫0 ∫0 (𝑈𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ =(2/3)𝜋Um

• Comparing with isotropic source we get,

(2/3)𝜋Um=4𝜋𝑈𝑜
• Therefore,
• Directivity=Um/Uo=D=6

4. Compute the total power radiated by source having radiation intensity, U=Umsin2θ. Also directivity, D.
Solution
• Therefore total power radiated is given by,
2𝜋 𝜋
• P=∫0 ∫0 (𝑈𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑∅ =(8/3)𝜋Um

• Comparing with isotropic source we get,

(8/3)𝜋Um=4𝜋𝑈𝑜
• Therefore,
• Directivity=Um/Uo=D=3/2=1.5

4.2 Field pattern

• The power pattern is the measured (or calculated) and plotted received power, |P(θ, φ)|, at a constant
(large) distance from the antenna
• The amplitude of field pattern is the measured (calculated) and plotted electric (or magnetic) field
intensity, |E(θ, φ)| or |H(θ, φ)| at a constant (large) distance from the antennas

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•
The conditions characterizing the far field are then:
1. Poynting vector radial (Sr component only)
2. Electric field transverse (Eϴ and Eφ components only)
• The relation between the average Poynting vector and the electric field at a point of the far field is

• where Z0 = intrinsic impedance of medium and

A pattern showing variation of the electric field intensity at a constant radius r as a function of angle(θ , φ) is
called “field pattern” The power pattern and the field patterns are inter-related:

P(θ, φ) = (1/η)*|E(θ, φ )|2 = η*|H(θ, φ)|2 (4.12)

P = power
E = electrical field component vector
H = magnetic field component vector
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η = 377 ohm (free-space impedance)

When the field intensity is expressed in volts per meter, it is an absolute field pattern. On the other hand, if
the field intensity is expressed in units relative to its value in some reference direction, it is a relative field
pattern. The reference direction is usually taken in the direction of maximum field intensity. The relative
pattern of the Eθ component is then given by
Eθ/Eθm (3)
and the relative pattern of the Eφ component is given by
Eφ/Eφm (4)
where
Eθm = maximum value of Eθ
Eφm = maximum value of Eφ

The magnitudes of both the electric field components, Eθ and Eφ, of the far field vary inversely as the
distance from the source.
However, they may be different functions, F1 and F2, of the angular coordinates, θ and φ.
Thus, in general,

Assuming that the field varies harmonically with time and that the frequency is known, the far field in all
directions from a source may be completely specified by a knowledge of the following four quantities:
1. Amplitude of the polar component Eθ of the electric field as a function of r, θ, and φ
2. Amplitude of the azimuthal component Eφ of the electric field as a function of r, θ, and φ
3. Phase lag δ of Eφ behind Eθ as a function of θ and φ
4. Phase lag η of either field component behind its value at a reference point as a function of r, θ, and φ

Three-dimensional field pattern at (a), polar pattern at (b), and decibel pattern at (c) showing alternate phasing
(+ and −) of pattern lobes

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4.3 Array Of Two Point Sources

• Array is an assembly of antennas in an electrical and geometrical of such a nature that the radiation from
each element add up to give a maximum field intensity in a particular direction & cancels in other
directions
• An important characteristic of an array is the change of its radiation pattern in response to different
excitations of its antenna elements

Here let us consider the different cases of two isotropic sources placed λ/2 apart with different scenarios.

1. Obtain the field pattern for 2 isotropic point sources with equal amplitude and opposite phase.
Assume distance between 2 sources is ‘d’.
The first case we shall analyze is that of two isotropic point sources having equal amplitudes and oscillating
in the same phase. Let the two point sources, 1 and 2, be separated by a distance d and located symmetrically
with respect to the origin of the coordinates as shown in Fig.

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The angle φ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis.

The origin of the coordinates is taken as the reference for phase. Then at a distant point in the direction φ the
field from source 1 is retarded by (1/2)dr cos φ, while the field from source 2 is advanced by (1/2)dr cos φ,
where dr is the distance between the sources expressed in radians; that is

Case 2. Two Isotropic Point Sources of Same Amplitude but Opposite Phase

• This case is identical with the one we have just considered except that the two sources are in opposite
phase instead of in the same phase.
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• Let the sources be located as in Fig. 5−15a. Then the total field in the direction φ at a large distance r is
given by

putting 2jE0 = 1 and considering the special case of d = λ/2

Relative field pattern for two isotropic point sources of the same amplitude but opposite phase, spaced λ/2 apart
is shown in Fig

Case 3. Two Isotropic Point Sources of the Same Amplitude and In-Phase Quadrature
• Let the two point sources be located as in Fig. Taking the origin of the coordinates as the reference for
phase, let source 1 be retarded by 45◦ and source 2 advanced by 45◦.
• Then the total field in the direction φ at a large distance r is given by

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Relative field pattern is shown in Fig

Case 4. General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and Any Phase Difference

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• Proceeding now to a more general situation, let us consider the case of two isotropic point sources of equal
amplitude but of any phase difference δ. The total phase difference ψ between the fields from source 2
and source 1 at a distant point in the direction φ

•
• Taking source 1 as the reference for phase, the positive sign in (19) indicates that source 2 is advanced in
phase by the angle δ. A minus sign would be used to indicate a phase retardation. If, instead of referring
the phase to source 1, it is referred to the centerpoint of the array, the phase of the field from source 1 at
a distant point is given by −ψ/2 and that from source 2 by +ψ/2. The total field is then

• Normalizing , we have the general expression for the field pattern of two isotropic sources of equal
amplitude and arbitrary phase,

Relative field pattern is shown in Fig

Case 5. Most General Case of Two Isotropic Point Sources of Unequal Amplitude and Any Phase
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Difference
• A still more general situation, involving two isotropic point sources, exists when the amplitudes are
unequal and the phase difference is arbitrary.
• Let the sources be situated as in Fig. with source 1 at the [Link] that the source 1 has the larger
amplitude and that its field at a large distance r has an amplitude of E0.
• Let the field from source 2 be of amplitude aE0 (0 ≤ a ≤ 1) at the distance r. Then, referring to Fig. the
magnitude and phase angle of the total field E is given by

Figure (a) Two isotropic point sources of unequal amplitude and arbitrary phase with respect to the
coordinate system. (b) Vector addition of fields from unequal sources arranged as

4.4 Array Of ‘n’ Isotropic Point Sources

Uniformly excited equally spaced linear arrays Linear arrays of N-isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and
spacing: An array is said to be linear if the individual elements of the array are spaced equally along a line and
uniform if the same are fed with currents of equal amplitude and having uniform phase shift along the line

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Fig.4.4 Linear arrays of N-isotropic point sources of equal amplitude and spacing:

The total field E at distance point in the direction of is given by

(4.18)

Where Ψ= total phase difference between adjacent source Ψ =dr*cos +δ =2π/λ*d*cosφ +δ

δ = phase difference of adjacent source multipliying equation (1) by ℮jφ

(4.19)

Subtract (4.18)-(4.19) yields

If the phase is referred to the centre point of the array, then E reduces to

E=(sin(nΨ/2)) /sin(Ψ/2) (4.20)

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when
Ψ=0 E=lim (sin(nΨ/2)) /sin(Ψ/2)
ψ 0, E =n=Emax
Ψ=0 E=Emax= n ……….normalizing
Enorm =E/Emax =(1/n)(sin(nΨ/2)) /sin(Ψ/2)

(a) Vector addition of fields at a large distance from the linear array of five
isotropic point sources of equal amplitude with source 1 as the phase center (reference for
phase). (b) Same, but with midpoint of array (source 3) as phase center.
4.5 Case 1: Linear Broad Side Array
• An array is said to be broadside if the phase angle is such that it makes maximum radiation perpendicular
to the line of array i.e. 900&2700
• For broad side array Ψ=0 & δ=0
• Therefore
Ψ =dr*cos Φ +δ=βdcos Φ +0=0 Φ= ±900
• Therefore Φmax= 900&2700
• Broadside array example for n=4 and d=λ/2
• By previous results we have Φmax = 900&2700

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a) Field pattern of broadside array of four isotropic point sources of the same
amplitude and phase. The spacing between sources is λ/2.
(b) Field pattern in rectangular coordinates and phase patterns of same array with phase center at midpoint and
at source 1. The reference direction for phase is at φ = 90

CASE2: An array is said to be end fire if the phase angle is such that it makes maximum radiation in the line of
array i.e. 00&1800
• For end fire array Ψ=0 & Φ =00 &1800
• Therefore Ψ =dr*cos Φ +δ
• δ= -dr
• The above result indicates that for an end fire array the phase difference b/w sources is retarded
progressively by the same amount as spacing b/w the sources in radians source 2 lags behind source1 by
π radians

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Fig. Field pattern of ordinary end-fire array of four isotropic point sources of same amplitude. Spacing is
λ/2 and the phase angle δ = −π. (b) Field pattern in rectangular coordinates and phase patterns of same array
with phase center at midpoint and at source 1. The reference direction for phase is at φ =0.

End Fire Array with increased directivity

• The situation discussed in Case 2, namely, for δ = −dr , produces a maximum field in the direction φ = 0
but does not give the maximum directivity. It has been shown by Hansen and Woodyard that a larger
directivity is obtained by increasing the phase change between sources so that

• This condition will be referred to as the condition for “increased directivity.” Thus for the phase
difference of the fields at a large distance we have

Field pattern of end-fire array of four isotropic point sources of equal amplitude spaced λ/2 apart.
The phasing is adjusted for increased directivity

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Fig. Field patterns of end-fire arrays of 10 isotropic point sources of equal amplitude spaced λ/4 apart. The
pattern at (a) has the phase adjusted for increased directivity
(δ=−0.6π), while the pattern at (b) has the phasing of an ordinary end-fire array (δ=−0.5π).

Case 4. Array with Maximum Field in an Arbitrary Direction--Scanning Array

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Let us consider the case of an array with a field pattern having a maximum in some arbitrary direction φ1
not equal to kπ/2 where k = 0, 1, 2, or 3. Then

By specifying the spacing dr , the required phase difference δ is then determine. Conversely, by changing δ
the beam direction φ1 can be shifted or scanned

The radiation pattern is as shown in Fig

4.6 Outcomes
• Able to calculate directivity for practical antennas by using the procedure
• Able to calculate major lobe minor lobe, HPBW, FNBW for two isotropic antennas, BSA.
• EFA different problems for given data

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