Chapter 3: Memory

Management
 Contents
❖Basics of memory management
❖Swapping
❖Virtual memory
❖Page replacement algorithms
❖Segmentation

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3.1 Basics of memory management
• Memory management is a core function of an operating

system (OS) that handles the computer’s primary (RAM) and

secondary (disk) memory resources.

• It ensures that memory is allocated efficiently to running

processes, maximizes overall system performance, and

prevents conflicts that could arise when multiple processes

attempt to access the same memory space.

• Efficient memory management is crucial because memory is

a limited and critical resource in a computer system.

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• Without proper management, processes could overwrite each
other’s data, leading to errors, crashes, or inefficient use of
system resources.
❖ The main responsibilities of memory management include:
• Allocation and deallocation of memory to processes as needed.
• Tracking used and free memory to optimize usage.
• Ensuring process isolation and protection, so one process
cannot access another’s memory illegally.
• Supporting multitasking, by allowing multiple programs to run
simultaneously without interfering with each other.
• Enabling virtual memory, which allows programs to use more
memory than physically available by temporarily storing data
on disk.
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❖ Memory Hierarchy
• Memory in a computer is organized in a hierarchical structure to
balance speed, cost, and capacity.
• The closer the memory is to the CPU, the faster and more
expensive it is.

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❖ Memory Allocation Methods
• There are mainly two types of memory allocation methods in an
operating system:
1. Contiguous Memory Allocation
2. Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation
a) Contiguous Memory Allocation
• Each process is assigned a single continuous block of memory.
• All the memory for the process is in adjacent addresses.
• It is simple to implement but may cause fragmentation.
• Example: If a process needs 50 KB, it gets one block of 50 KB in
memory:
• Process A: 50 KB
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b) Non-Contiguous Memory Allocation

• A process is divided into smaller chunks/several parts that can be

stored in different locations of physical memory.

• These chunks do not need to be adjacent.

• It helps to reduce fragmentation and makes better use of available

memory but access may be slower if memory is scattered.

• The two main techniques used are Paging and Segmentation.

• Example: A process of 50 KB can be split into 5 blocks of 10 KB each,

placed anywhere in memory.
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3.2 Swapping
• Swapping is a process in which the operating system
moves data or programs between main memory and
secondary storage.

• It is used to manage limited RAM space and allows the

system to run more or larger programs at the same time.

• The CPU scheduler decides which processes should be

swapped in (brought into RAM) and which should be
swapped out (moved to secondary storage).

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• Swapping occurs only when the required data or process is
not available in RAM.

• This process may slow down system performance, because

accessing data from the hard disk is slower than from
RAM.

• However, it allows the system to run multiple processes

concurrently and improves overall memory utilization.

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• The below figure shows the swapping process in the operating
system:

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❖ Process of Swapping
• When the RAM becomes full and a new program needs to
run, the operating system selects an inactive process or data
currently in RAM.
• The selected process is moved (swapped out) to secondary
storage, creating free space in RAM.
• The new program is then loaded into the freed space.
• If the swapped-out process is needed again, it is swapped back
into RAM by replacing another inactive process if necessary.
• This continuous process of swapping in and swapping out
helps the system manage memory efficiently and allows
multiple programs to run even with limited RAM.

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3.3 Virtual memory
• Virtual memory is a memory management technique used
by the operating system that allows a computer to use more
memory than the amount of physical RAM available by
temporarily storing data on the hard disk.

• It allows programs to use a large, continuous block of

memory, even if the actual memory is small.

• The OS divides programs into pages and stores parts of

them on the hard disk when there isn’t enough space in
RAM.
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❖ Objectives of Virtual Memory
• A program does not need to be fully loaded in memory to run
only required parts are loaded.
• Programs can be larger than the available physical memory.
• It creates an illusion of a large main memory, even on systems
with limited RAM.
• It uses both RAM and disk space to manage memory efficiently.
• Allows the system to run multiple programs at once and
improves overall system performance.
• Generally, virtual memory increases efficiency and multitasking
by using disk space as an extension of RAM.

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❖ Types of Virtual Memory
• Virtual memory is managed by the Memory Management Unit
(MMU), usually built into the CPU.
• The CPU generates virtual addresses, and the MMU translates
them into physical addresses.
• There are two main types of virtual memory: Paging and
Segmentation.
❑ Paging
• Memory is divided into fixed-size blocks called pages.
• RAM is divided into frames of the same size.
• When a program runs, its pages are loaded into available frames
in RAM.
• Pages not currently in use are stored on the hard disk to free up
RAM.
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• When those pages are needed again, they are brought back
(swapped) into RAM.
• This allows large programs to run, even if they are bigger than
the available physical memory (RAM).
• Page Fault: Occurs when the CPU tries to access a page that is
not in RAM (it’s on the disk).
• The OS then loads that page from the disk into RAM.

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3.4 Page replacement algorithm
• In a paging system, a page replacement algorithm is needed
when a page fault occurs and no free frame is available in RAM.
• The OS must replace an existing page with the new one.
• Common Page Replacement Techniques
1. First In First Out (FIFO)
2. Optimal Page Replacement
3. Least Recently Used (LRU)
4. Most Recently Used (MRU)
1. First In First Out (FIFO)
• The simplest page replacement method.
• Pages are kept in a queue based on the order they were loaded.
• The oldest page at the front of the queue is replaced first when a
new page is needed.
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• Example 1: Consider page reference string 1, 3, 0, 3, 5, 6, 3
with 3-page frames. Find the number of page faults using
FIFO Page Replacement Algorithm.

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• Initially, all slots are empty, so when 1, 3, 0 came they are
allocated to the empty slots -> 3 Page Faults.

• When 3 comes, it is already in memory so -> 0 Page Faults.

• Then 5 comes, it is not available in memory, so it replaces the

oldest page slot i.e. 1. -> 1 Page Fault.

• 6 comes, it is also not available in memory, so it replaces the

oldest page slot i.e. 3 -> 1 Page Fault.

• Finally, when 3 come it is not available, so it replaces 0 ->

1-page fault.
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2. Optimal Page Replacement
• In this algorithm, pages are replaced which would not be used
for the longest duration of time in the future.

• This method minimizes the number of page faults.

❖ Example: Consider the page references 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0,

3, 2, 3 with 4-page frame.

• Find number of page fault using Optimal Page Replacement

Algorithm.

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• Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the
empty slots -> 4 Page faults

• 0 is already there so -> 0 Page fault.

• when 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is not used for
the longest duration of time in the future-> 1 Page fault.

• 0 is already there so -> 0 Page fault.

• 4 will takes place of 1 ---> 1 Page Fault.

• Remaining page references are already in memory → 0 page

faults.
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• Note:
• Optimal page replacement minimizes page faults.
• Not practical, because the OS cannot predict future page requests.
• It is used as a benchmark to compare other page replacement
algorithms.
3. Least Recently Used

• In this algorithm, page will be replaced which is least recently used. Or

• Remove the page that hasn't been used recently.

• Example: Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4, 2, 3, 0,

3, 2, 3 with 4-page frames.

• Find number of page faults using LRU Page Replacement Algorithm.

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• Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the
empty slots -> 4 Page faults.

• 0 is already there so -> 0 Page fault.

• when 3 came it will take the place of 7 because it is least recently

used -> 1 Page fault.

• 0 is already in memory so -> 0 Page fault.

• 4 will takes place of 1 -> 1 Page Fault.

• Now for the further page reference string -> 0 Page fault because
they are already available in the memory.
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4. Most Recently Used (MRU)

• In this algorithm, the page that was used most recently is

replaced first. Or
• Remove the page that was just used

• Belady’s anomaly (where increasing the number of page frames

increases page faults) can occur with this method.

• Example: Consider the page reference string 7, 0, 1, 2, 0, 3, 0, 4,

2, 3, 0, 3, 2, 3 with 4-page frames.

• Find number of page faults using MRU Page Replacement

Algorithm. 28
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• Initially, all slots are empty, so when 7 0 1 2 are allocated to the
empty slots ---> 4 Page faults
• 0 is already their so--> 0 page fault
• when 3 comes it will take place of 0 because it is most recently
used ---> 1 Page fault
• when 0 comes it will take place of 3 ---> 1 Page fault
• when 4 comes it will take place of 0 ---> 1 Page fault
• 2 is already in memory so ---> 0 Page fault
• when 3 comes it will take place of 2 ---> 1 Page fault
• when 0 comes it will take place of 3 ---> 1 Page fault
• when 3 comes it will take place of 0 ---> 1 Page fault
• when 2 comes it will take place of 3 ---> 1 Page fault
• when 3 comes it will take place of 2 ---> 1 Page fault: Total page 30
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3.5 Segmentation
• Segmentation is a memory management technique where a
process is divided into variable-sized chunks called segments.

• Unlike paging, segmentation matches the logical view of a

program to physical memory.

❖ Segment Table
• A segment table stores information about each segment.
• It maps two-dimensional logical addresses (segment number +
offset) into one-dimensional physical addresses.

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• Each entry in the table contains:
• Base Address: Starting physical address of the segment in
memory.
• Segment Limit (Offset): Length of the segment.
• Segmentation matches logical program structure and improves
memory use, but it can cause fragmentation and slower access.

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Next Chapter 4
File Systems