Casework

MathDash
Last updated 2025-11-13

1 Introduction

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When faced with a complex counting problem, sometimes the best approach is to break

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it into smaller, manageable pieces. This is called casework.

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Example 1.1
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h O
How many 3-digit numbers contain exactly two different digits?

a t e
Before diving in, let’s understand what we’re looking for. A valid number would be like

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112 or 323 - using exactly two different digits in some pattern.

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Let’s first identify all possible patterns when using two digits (call them A and B). Note
that every valid 3-digit number with exactly two different digits must fall into one of

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these patterns:

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• AAB (A appears twice at start)

• ABA (A appears twice with B between)

• BAA (A appears twice at end)

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Looking at this list, we can organize our counting into three main cases based on where
the repeated digit appears:

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Case Pattern Example
1 AAB 112
2 ABA 121
3 BAA 211
Let’s count each case:

Case 1 (AAB):

• First digit A: 1-9 (9 choices, can’t be 0)

• Second digit B: 0-9 except A (9 choices)

• Total: 9 × 9 = 81 numbers

Case 2 (ABA):

• First digit A: 1-9 (9 choices)

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

• Second digit B: 0-9 except A (9 choices)

• Total: 9 × 9 = 81 numbers

Case 3 (BAA):

• First digit B: 1-9 (9 choices)

• Second digit A: 0-9 except A (9 choices)

• Total: 9 × 9 = 81 numbers

Total numbers = 81 + 81 + 81 = 243

Example 1.2
In how many ways can you color the vertices of a square using red, blue, and green

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if rotations of the same coloring are considered the same?

a s ly
There are many ways to solve this with casework - the tricky part is choosing a set of
cases that keeps each case manageable!

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Let’s break it down by how many colors are actually used:

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Case 1: Using only one color

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• Choose which color: 3 choices

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B rna
• Only one possible pattern after color choice

• Total: 3 patterns

Case 2: Using exactly two colors

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Sub-cases:

• Two vertices each color:

– Choose which two colors: 3

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= 3 ways
– After colors chosen, 2 distinct patterns after rotation (alternating or adjacent)

– Subtotal: 3 × 2 = 6 patterns

• One vertex one color, three vertices other color:

– Choose which color is used once: 3 ways

– Choose which color is used three times out of the remaining: 2 ways

– Subtotal: 3 × 2 = 6 patterns

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

• Total: 6 + 6 = 12 patterns

Case 3: Using all three colors

Adjacent Diagonal

Sub-cases based on where the repeated color appears:

• Adjacent positioning (repeated color on adjacent vertices):

– Choose which color appears twice: 3 ways

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– Choose arrangement of other two colors: 2 ways

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– Subtotal: 3 × 2 = 6 patterns

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• Diagonal positioning (repeated color on opposite corners):

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– Choose which color appears twice: 3 ways

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– Choose arrangement of other two colors: 1 way

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– Subtotal: 3 × 1 = 3 patterns

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• Total: 6 + 3 = 9 patterns

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Total patterns = 3 + 12 + 9 = 24 distinct colorings

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Example 1.3

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How many ways can you make change for 50 cents using quarters, dimes, and nick-
els?

Why split by quarters? Let’s think about our options:

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• By quarters: 0-2 quarters possible (3 cases)

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• By dimes: 0-5 dimes possible (6 cases)

• By nickels: 0-10 nickels possible (11 cases)

Choosing quarters gives us the fewest cases! Also, quarters being the largest coin means
each case leaves less money to handle, making sub-calculations simpler.

Let’s solve systematically:

Case Q = 2 (50¢ - 50¢ = 0¢ remaining):

• Only possibility: 2Q, 0D, 0N

• Count: 1 way

Case Q = 1 (50¢ - 25¢ = 25¢ remaining):

• Need combinations of D and N for 25¢

• Solutions: (2D,1N), (1D, 3N), (0D,5N)

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

• Count: 3 ways

Case Q = 0 (50¢ remaining):

• Solutions: (5D,0N), (4D,2N), (3D, 4N), (4D, 6N), (5D, 8N), (6D, 10N)

• Count: 6 ways

Total number of ways = 1 + 3 + 6 = 10

Notice how each case follows the same pattern:

• Fix the number of quarters

• Convert remaining amount to a simple equation

• Find all integer solutions where 𝐷 >= 0 and 𝑁 >= 0

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This systematic approach is what makes casework powerful. Each case becomes a sim-

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pler problem that we can solve using the same method.

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2 Choosing Good Cases

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When approaching a problem with casework, look for these qualities:

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• Small number of cases (like quarters vs. dimes)

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• Cases that are mutually exclusive (no overlap)

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• Cases that are exhaustive (cover all possibilities)

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• Cases that make the remaining problem simpler

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In our three examples:

• Two-digit numbers: Cases by pattern (AABB, ABBA, ABAB) made digit selection
straightforward

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• Square coloring: Cases by number of colors used naturally handled rotational sym-

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metry

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• Making change: Cases by quarters minimized case count and simplified remaining
calculations

Remark 2.1
When using casework, it’s important to verify your solution by:

• Solving the problem with different case breakdowns to confirm you get the same an-
swer

• Double-checking that your cases don’t overlap

• Verifying that your cases cover all possibilities

• Testing your solution with specific examples

A wrong casework solution often looks convincing at first glance. Taking time to verify your
work carefully can help catch mistakes before they cost you points!

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

Remark 2.2
When your casework leads to messy calculations, it’s often a sign that you should try differ-
ent cases! For example, in the change-making problem, if we had chosen cases by dimes (0D
to 20D), we would have needed to work through 21 cases!

Don’t be afraid to restart with a different approach. A good case breakdown should make
the problem simpler, not more complicated!

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D a n l
a t h e O
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3 Practice Problems
Problem 1. How many 4-digit numbers contain exactly three different digits?

Problem 2. How many ways can you make change for 40¢ using quarters, dimes, and
nickels?

Problem 3. A bag contains 3 identical red marbles, 2 identical blue marbles, and 4 iden-
tical green marbles. In how many ways can you select 4 marbles if the order doesn’t
matter?

Problem 4. How many 3-digit numbers exist where each digit differs from its adjacent
digits by at most 1? (For example, 123, 321, and 111 are valid; 135 is not. Note that ”differs

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by at most 1” means the digits can be equal or differ by 1.)

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Problem 5. In how many ways can you color the faces of a cube using red, blue, and

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green if rotations are considered the same?

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a t s e
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B rna
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4 Practice Problems with Solutions

Problem 1. How many 4-digit numbers contain exactly three different digits?

Hint: Consider which digit must be repeated and where it can appear.

Solution: Let’s solve this systematically using casework:

First, note that we need to:

• Use exactly three different digits (call them A, B, C)

• One digit must appear twice

• The number must be 4 digits (so can’t start with 0)

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Let’s organize by which digit appears twice and where:

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• AABC (repeated at start)

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• ABAC (repeated in first and third)

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• ABCA (repeated in first and last)

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• BAAC (repeated in second and third)

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• BACA (repeated in second and last)

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• BCAA (repeated at end)

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Case 1: If the repeated digit is 0

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• Can’t be used at the start, so only BAAC, BACA, BCAA are valid

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B rna l
• First digit (B): 1-9 (9 choices)

• Other new digit (C): 1-9 except B (8 choices)

• Count: 9 · 8 · 3 = 216 numbers

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Case 2: If the repeated digit is not 0

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• Choose repeated digit: 1-9 (9 choices)

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• Choose first new digit: 0-9 except repeated digit (9 choices)

• Choose second new digit: 0-9 except previous two digits (8 choices)

• All 6 patterns are valid

• Count: 9 · 9 · 8 · 6 = 3,888 numbers

Total: 216 + 3,888 = 4,104 numbers

Problem 2. How many ways can you make change for 40¢ using quarters, dimes, and
nickels?

Hint: Use quarters for casework as they’re the largest denomination.

Solution: Let’s solve this systematically by cases based on number of quarters:

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

Case Q = 1 (40¢ - 25¢ = 15¢ remaining):

• Need combinations of D and N for 15¢

• Solutions: (1D,1N), (0D,3N)

• Count: 2 ways

Case Q = 0 (40¢ remaining):

• Solutions: (4D,0N), (3D,2N), (2D,4N), (1D,6N), (0D, 8N)

• Count: 5 ways

Total ways = 2 + 5 = 7

Problem 3. A bag contains 3 identical red marbles, 2 identical blue marbles, and 4 iden-

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tical green marbles. In how many ways can you select 4 marbles if the order doesn’t

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matter?

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Hint: Break into cases based on how many of each color are selected.

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Solution: Let’s organize by how many red marbles we select:

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Case R = 0:

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• Need 4 marbles from blue and green

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• Blue options: 0,1,2 (can’t use more than 2)

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• Corresponding green needed: 4,3,2

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• All combinations possible with available marbles

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• Count: 3 ways

Case R = 1:

• Need 3 more marbles from blue and green

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• Blue options: 0,1,2

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• Corresponding green needed: 3,2,1

• All combinations possible

• Count: 3 ways

Case R = 2:

• Need 2 more marbles from blue and green

• Blue options: 0,1,2

• Corresponding green needed: 2,1,0

• All combinations possible

• Count: 3 ways

Case R = 3:

• Need 1 more marble from blue or green

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• Can be either blue (1 way) or green (1 way)

• Count: 2 ways

Case R = 4:

• Not possible (only 3 red marbles available)

• Count: 0 ways

Total ways = 3 + 3 + 3 + 2 + 0 = 11 ways

Problem 4. How many 3-digit numbers exist where each digit differs from its adjacent
digits by at most 1? (For example, 123, 321, and 111 are valid; 135 is not. Note that ”differs
by at most 1” means the digits can be equal or differ by 1.)

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Hint: Break into cases based on the first digit, then consider valid options for subsequent

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digits.

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Solution: Let’s solve this systematically:

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First, note that:

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• First digit can’t be 0 (must be 1-9)

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• Each subsequent digit must be within 1 of the previous digit

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• Equal digits are allowed

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Let’s organize by first digit:

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For first digit 1:

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• Second digit must be 0,1,2

• For second digit 0: third can be 0,1

• For second digit 1: third can be 0,1,2

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• For second digit 2: third can be 1,2,3

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• Count: 2 + 3 + 3 = 8 numbers

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For first digit 2:

• Second digit must be 1,2,3

• For second digit 1: third can be 0,1,2

• For second digit 2: third can be 1,2,3

• For second digit 3: third can be 2,3,4

• Count: 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 numbers

For first digits 3-7:

• Second digit must be n-1,n,n+1

• Each second digit allows three third digits

• Count: 9 numbers each

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

For first digit 8:

• Second digit must be 7,8,9

• For second digit 7: third can be 6,7,8

• For second digit 8: third can be 7,8,9

• For second digit 9: third can be 8,9

• Count: 3 + 3 + 2 = 8 numbers

For first digit 9:

• Second digit must be 8,9

• For second digit 8: third can be 7,8,9

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• For second digit 9: third can be 8,9

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• Count: 3 + 2 = 5 numbers

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Total = 8 + 9 + ( 5 × 9) + 8 + 5 = 75 numbers

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Problem 5. In how many ways can you color the faces of a cube using red, blue, and

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green if rotations are considered the same?

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Hint: Break into cases based on how many faces of each color are used.

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Solution: Let the colors be R, G, B. We consider cases based on the number of distinct

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colors used and the distribution of colors on the 6 faces. We must account for rotational

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symmetry.

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Case 1: One color used (Monochromatic)

• All 6 faces are R, or all G, or all B.

• These 3 patterns are distinct.

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• Count: 3 patterns.

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Case 2: Exactly two colors used

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3

• Choose which two colors (e.g., R and G): 2
= 3 ways.
• For a chosen pair (A, B), consider the face counts:

– 5A, 1B: The single face B is unique up to rotation. (1 pattern)

– 1A, 5B: The single face A is unique up to rotation. (1 pattern)

– 4A, 2B: The two B faces can be adjacent or opposite. (2 patterns)

– 2A, 4B: The two A faces can be adjacent or opposite. (2 patterns)

– 3A, 3B: The three A faces can meet at a vertex, or form a band around the
cube. (2 patterns)

• Total patterns for one pair of colors = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 8.

• Total count for Case 2 = 3 × 8 = 24 patterns.

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MathDash (Last updated 2025-11-13) Casework

Case 3: All three colors used (R, G, B)

• Subcases by distribution of face counts (must sum to 6):

– 4-1-1 split (e.g., 4R, 1G, 1B):

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* Choose the color for 4 faces: 1
= 3 ways.
* For 4R, 1G, 1B: The two single faces (G, B) can be opposite each other, or
adjacent to each other. These are rotationally distinct. (2 patterns).

* Count: 3 × 2 = 6 patterns.
– 3-2-1 split (e.g., 3R, 2G, 1B):

* Choose colors for counts (3, 2, 1): 3! = 6 ways to assign R,G,B to counts.

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* For a fixed assignment (e.g., 3R, 2G, 1B), there are 3 distinct patterns under
rotation:

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1. The 3 R faces meet at a corner. The single B face is on the opposite

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side. The 2 G faces are opposite each other.

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2. The 3 R faces meet at a corner. The single B face is next to that corner.

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The 2 G faces share an edge on the opposite side.

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3. The 3 R faces make a ring around the middle. The single B face is

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on one end. The 2 G faces are opposite each other on the remaining

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sides.

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* Count: 6 (assignments) × 3 (patterns per assignment) = 18 patterns.

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– 2-2-2 split (2R, 2G, 2B):

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B rna
* There are 6 distinct patterns for this distribution:
1. All pairs opposite: R faces opposite, G opposite, B opposite. (1 pattern)

2. One pair opposite, two pairs adjacent: Choose the color pair that is

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opposite (3 ways). E.g., R opposite R, G adjacent G, B adjacent B. (3

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patterns)

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3. All pairs adjacent: This makes two different patterns that can’t be
rotated to match each other. (2 patterns)

* Count: 1 + 3 + 2 = 6 patterns.
• Total count for Case 3 = 6 + 18 + 6 = 30 patterns.

Total distinct colorings = Case 1 + Case 2 + Case 3

Total = 3 + 24 + 30 = 57 distinct colorings

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