 Nature of Matter

 Structure of Atom
 Radioactivity
 Classification of Elements/ Periodicity
 Mendeleev's Periodic Table
 Modern Periodic Law
 Acids
 Bases and Salts
 Metals and Non-Metals
 Electro-chemistry
 Man
 Made Materials
 Energy Resources
 Organic Chemistry.
 Chemistry : It is a branch of physical
science that studies the composition,
structures, properties and change of
matter.
 So, we will initiate our learning from
matter.
STATE OF MATTERS PROPERTIES EXAMPLE

Solid •Definite shape (tightly packed Ice, salt, rubber band, sponge
particles, so rigid) etc.
•Fixed volume

Liquid •No fixed shape (loosely Water, Petrol, etc.

packed particles than solids,
so not rigid), can flow so it is a
fluid
•Fixed volume
Gas •No fixed shape (largest space Water vapour, oxygen,
between particle hydrogen, nitrogen etc.
so can diffuse easily)
•No fixed volume (high
compressibility)
 Everything in this universe is made up of material. Scientist
have named air, food we eat, stones, clouds, plants and
animals, particle of sand everything as matter. Matter
occupy space and have mass. i.e it exhibits both mass
and volume.
 Matter is made up of particles where the particles of
matter
 have space between them
 attract each other.
 The three important states of matter and their properties
are given in the table.
1. Factors determining the state of matter
are
2 Pressure
3 Temperature
4 Solids, liquids and gases are inter-
convertible by changing the conditions
of temperature and pressure.
 Pure substance is one that is a single form of matter
and has a uniform composition. Such substances
always have the same texture and taste. e.g. water,
salt, sugar, etc.
 Testing the purity of a substance
 The purity of substance can easily be
 checked by checking:
 the melting point in case of a solid substance, or
 boiling point in case case of a liquid ubstances.
 Types of pure substances
 Two different types of pure substances are
 (i) Element: An element is a substance
which cannot be split into two or more
simpler substances by usual physical and
chemical methods like applying heat, light
or electric energy etc., e.g., hydrogen,
oxygen, sodium, chlorine etc.
 (ii) Compound: A compound is a
substance made up of two or more
elements chemically combined in a
fixed ratio by weight, e.g. H O (water),
NaCl (sodium chloride).
 A mixture is a substance which consists of
two or more elements or compounds
combined together in indefinite
proportion. Types of mixtures
 Mixtures are impure substances. They are
of
 two types:
 (i) Homogeneous mixture: It has a
uniform composition through out and its
components cannot be distinguished
visually.
 e.g. a well mixed sample of vinegar.
 ii) Heterogeneous mixture: It does not have a
uniform composition through out. Different samples
of a heterogeneous mixture may have different
composition and its components can be seen
visually. e.g., a mixture of salt and pepper.
 Separating the components of a mixture
 Depending upon the type of mixture (i.e. whether it is
a homogeneous mixture or heterogeneous mixture)
different methods used are given below:
S No. Mixture Separation Method Example

1. Insoluble solid in solvent Sedimentation followed by Sand in water tank

filtration. In case of a fine
solid, centrifugation is used
instead of filtration
2. Solution of solid in liquid Evaporation, crystallization, NaCl in water sugar
distillation solution
3. Miscible mixture of Fractional distillation Petroleum products
liquids
4. Immiscible mixture of Separating funnel Water-kerosene mixture
liquids
5. Mixture of two solids one of Sublimation Camphor in iron ore
which is sublime
6. Mixture of substances in Chromatography Pigments from natural
solution colours
 Solution
 It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
whose composition can be varied, e.g. solution of common
salt in water, solution of ammonia in water. Some other
examples are lemonade, coke, pepsi, etc.
1. Solute: The component of solution that is dissolved and
present in smaller quantities in a solution is known as solute.
2. Solvent: The component of solution in which solute is
dissolved is known as solvent. It is always present in large
amount in a solution.
 • Saturated Solution: A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at
the same temperature is called saturated solution.

• Unsaturated Solution: It is a solution in which more solute can be dissolved

at the same temperature.
• Super-saturated Solution: It is a solution which contains more mass of
the dissolved solute than the saturated solution at the same temperature and
pressure.
• Concentration of a solution: Concentration of a solution is the amount of
solute present in a given amount (mass or volume) of a solution or the amount
of solute dissolved in a given mass or volume of a solvent.
 Solubility: It is defined as the amount of
solute dissolved in 100g of solvent to form
a saturated solution.
 Property True Solution Colloidal Solutions Suspension

Size of the par- ticles < 1nm 1– 1000nm >1000nm

Nature Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

Filterability (Diffusion Particles of true So- lution diffuse Colloidal particles pass through Suspension particles do not pass
through parchment paper) rapidly through filter paper as filter paper but not through through filter paper and parch-
well as parchment paper. parchment paper. ment paper.
Visibility Particles of True So- lution are not Colloidal particles are not seen to Suspension particles are big
visible to naked eye. naked eye but can be studied enough to be seen by naked eye.
through ultra microscope.
Tyndal effect True Solution does not show Colloids show Tyn- dall effect. Suspension may or may not
Tyndall effect. show Tyndall effect.

Appearance Transparent Translucent Opaque

 Types of colloidal solution: Since
colloidal solution is heterogeneous
mixture it consists of two phases. These
are
 dispersed phase (colloidal particles)
 dispersion medium (the medium in which
colloidal particles are dispersed.)
Dispersed Dispersion Type of Example
phase Medium colloid
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, clouds, mist

Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, automobile

exhaust
Gas Liquid Foam Shaving cream

Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, face cream

Solid Liquid Sol Milk of magnesia, mud

Gas Solid Foam Foam, rubber, sponge

Liquid Solid Gel Jelly, cheese, butter

Solid Solid Solid Sol Coloured gemstone, milky

glass
 Emulsion: Emulsions are liquid-liquid colloids.
 Types of Emulsion: Emulsions are oftwo types:
 (i) water in oil (ii) oil in water
 Emulsifiers are those substances that help in forming stable
emulsions of oil and water, e.g. milk, cod-liver oil, cold creams,
vanishing creams, moisturising cream, paints, etc.
 Physical change: During such a change no new substances is
formed and there is no change in the chemical properties of the
substances.
 Chemical change: Such a change is accompanied by change
in chemical pro- perties and formation of new substances.
 Change on physical property
Physical changes Observation

• Switching of an The bulb glows and gives out heat The physical appearance of
electric bulb and light energy. the bulb changes.

• Rubbing a The steel rod gets magnetised. If it The steel rod acquires the
permanent magnet on a steel rod is brought near iron nails, they get attracted. property of attracting pieces of iron.

• Action of heat on The brownish grey crystals of iodine Change of state and colour.
iodine change to form violet vapours. On cooling
the vapours condenses to for form crystals.

• Dissolving The white crystalline salt disappears Change of state.

common salt in water in water. However, the water tastes exactly
like common salt. Moreover, common salt
can be recovered by evaporation.
Chemical change Observation Chemical equation

• Burning of magnesium in air When a magnesium ribbon is heated in a Magnesium + Oxygen

flame of Bunsen burner, it catches fire and  Magnesium oxide
burns with dazzling white flame to form
white ash.

• Rusting of iron When iron (silver grey) is left exposed to (from air)  Iron
moist air for a few days, reddish brown + Oxygen + Water vapours  Rust
powdery mass (rust) is found on its surface.

• Burning of LPG When LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) is Butane (LPG) + Oxygen  Carbon
burnt, it burns with a pale blue flame and dioxide + Water
liberates colourless gas carbon dioxide
along with steam.
 Atomic Laws and Theory
 Law of conservation of mass: This law was stated by Lavoisier in 1744. It states that “In all
physical and chemical changes, the total mass of reactants is equal to total mass of
products.”
 Law of constant proportions (or constant composition): This law was first stated by Proust
in 1797. According to the law “a chemical compound is always found to be made up of
the same elements combined together in the same proportions by weight”
 e.g. the ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in pure water is always 1: 8 by weight. This law is
also called law of definite proportions.
 Law of multiple proportions: This law was given by John Dalton (1803) and states that
“when two elements combine to form two or more compounds, the different mass of
one of the elements and the fixed mass of the one with which it combines always form
a whole number ratio”. This law explains the concept of formation of more than one
compound by two elements.
 Dalton’s Atomic theory: Important postulates of Dalton’s
Atomic theory are as follows:
 Matter is made up of extremely small indivisible particles called
atoms.
 Atoms of the same substance are identical in all respects, i.e.
they possess same size, shape, mass, chemical properties, etc.
 Atoms of different substances are different in all respects, i.e.
they possess different size, shape, mass, etc.
 Atom is the smallest particle that takes part in a chemical
reaction.
 Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed, i.e. atoms are
indestructible.
 Atomic Laws and Theory
 Atom: It is the smallest particle of an
element which can take part in a
chemical change. It may or may not be
capable of independent existence.
 Vmbol: The abbreviations used for the
names of elements are termed as
symbols. The symbol of an element is the
first letter and another letter of English
name or Latin name of the element.
While writing a symbol, the first letter is
always capital and the second is always
small.
 Molecule:
It is the smallest particle of
an element or compound that is
capable of independent existence
and shows all the properties of that
substance.
 Atomicity:The number of atoms
present in a molecule of an element
or a compound is known as its
atomicity.
 Formula of Simple and Molecular Compounds
 Binary compounds are those compounds which are made
up of two different elements
 e.g. NaCl , KBr, CaO, etc. Following rules are
 to be followed for writing the formula.
 The valencies or charges on the ions must be balanced.
 For a compound made up of a metal and a non-metal,
the symbol of metal is written first.
 In compounds formed with polyatomic ions, the ion is
enclosed in a bracket before writing the number to
indicate the ratio.
 Valency: The electrons present in the
 outermost shell of an atom are known as
valence electrons. These electrons determine
the valency of an atom.
 Valency is equal to the number of
 valence electrons.
 In case the number of valence electrons is
close to its full capacity. Then,
 Valency:
 Atomic number (Z): Atomic number of an
element is equal to the number of protons
present in the nucleus of an atom.
 (Z) = number of protons = number of electrons
 Mass number (A) : It refers to the total number
of neutrons and protons (i.e., sum of protons
and neutrons) called collectively as nucleus,
present in an atom.
 (A)= number of protons + number of neutrons
 Isotopes: Atoms of the same element
having same atomic number but
different mass numbers are known as
Isotopes.
 Applications of Isotopes: Isotopes are used
in various fields. For example
 Isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in
nuclear reactor.
 Isotope of cobalt is used in treatment of
cancer.
 Isotope of iodine is used in treatment of
goitre.
 Isobars: Atoms of different elements
having same mass numbers are known as
Isobars, e.g. K-40 and Ar-40 Sub-atomic
particles
 Fundamental particles of on atom are
electron, proton and neutron.
 Electron — J.J. Thomson,
 Proton— E. Goldstein. and Neutron– James
chadwick
 particles electron proton neutron
(i) Symbol e or e– p n

(ii) Nature Negatively charged Positively charged neutral (no charge)

(iii) (a) Charge (a) –1.6 × 10 –19 C (a) +1.6 × 10 –19 C 0

(b) Unit charge (b) –1 (b) + 1 0

(iv) Mass (a) amu (a) 0.0005486 amu (a) 1.00753 amu (a) 1.00893 amu
(b) kg (b) 9.1 × 10–31kg (b) 1.67265 × 10–27 kg (b) 1.67495 × 10–27 kg

(v) Location Extra nuclear space nucleus nucleus

(vi) Notation e
0 1 1P 1
1 0n

(vii) Relative mass 1/1840 1 1

 It was discovered by Henry Becquerel but
term radioactivity was given by Madam
Curie. It is the process of spontaneous
disintegration of nucleus and is measured
by Geiger counter.
 It is a nuclear phenomenon, thus remains
unaffected by external factors like
temperature, pressure, etc
 Radioactive Rays
 Radioactivityinvolves emission of ,  and 
rays or particles. The original unit of
radioactivity is curie (Ci). Curie is replaced
by becquerel (Bq) in SI unit.
 Alpha () Rays
 These rays consist of positively charged helium nuclei
(He++). They have +2 unit charge and 4 mass.
 They have low penetrating power but very high
ionising power and kinetic energy.
 An -emission reduces the atomic mass by 4 and
atomic number by 2, thus, the new nuclei formed
occupy a position two places left to the parent nuclei
in the periodic table.
 Beta () Rays
 These rays consist of negatively charged electrons (–1e0) and
have – 1 unit charge and zero mass.
 These are more dangerous than -rays.
 These have high penetrating power as compared to -rays.
 A �-emission increased the atomic number by one with no
change in atomic mass, thus, the new nuclei obtained occupy
a position one place right to the parent nuclei in the periodic
table.
 Gamma () Rays
 These are electromagnetic radiation and
have very high penetrating power.
 These have low ionising power and kinetic
energy.
 Their emission does not affect the position
of nuclei in the periodic table.
 It is a process in which a heavy nucleus is
broken down into two or more lighter
fragments.
 It is usually accompanied with the
emission of neutrons and large amount
of energy. It is used in nuclear reactor
and atom bomb.
 Atom Bomb
 It is based on uncontrolled nuclear fission. It contains
235U or 239Pu as fuel. Nuclear Reactor
 It is a device that is used to produce electricity and
permits a controlled chain nuclear fission.
 It contains fuels, e.g. 92U235, moderator (e.g.
graphite and heavy water, D2O) to slow down
neutrons and control rods (made up of boron steel or
cadmium) to absorb neutrons.
 It may also contain liquid sodium as coolant.
 Nuclear Fusion
 It is a process which involves fusion of two or
more lighter nuclei to give a heavier nuclei.
 It occurs only at extremely high temperature
(> 106 K), so also called thermonuclear reactions.
 It is used in hydrogen bomb. Energy of Sun is also
a result of a series of nuclear fusion reactions..
 Hydrogen Bomb
 It contains a mixture of deuterium oxide (D2O)
and tritium oxide (T2O) in a space surrounding
an ordinary atom bomb.
 Radiocarbon Dating
 It is used in determining the age of carbon bearing
materials such as wood, animal fossils, etc. It is
based on the concentration of carbon and carbon
isotopes.
 Uranium Dating
 It is used to determine the age of earth, minerals and rocks.
 Uses of Radioisotopes
 Iodine-131 is employed to study the structure and activity of thyroid
gland. It is also used in internal radiation therapy for the treatment of
thyroid disease.
 Iodine-123 is used in brain imaging.
 Cobalt-60 is used in external radiation therapy for the treatment of
cancer.
 Sodium-24 is injected along with salt solution to trace the flow of blood.
 Phosphorus-32 is used for leukemia herapy.
 Carbon-14 is used to study the kinetics of photosynthesis.
 The study of chemistry is sub-divided into various branches
such as:
 Physical chemistry
 Inorganic chemistry
 Organic chemistry
 Biochemistry
 Analytical chemistry
 Industrial chemistry
 Agricultural chemistry
 Applied chemistry
 Ions or Radicals
 An ion is formed when electrons are removed from or added to
an atoms or group of atoms.
 When electron(s) is/are removed the resulting ion is called a cation or
basic radical. A cation is positively charged ion. (e.g. Na+).
 When electron(s) is/are added the resulting ion is called an anion or
acidic radicals. An anion is negatively charged ion (e.g. Cl–,
 An ion or radical is classified as monovalent,
 divalent, trivalent or tetravalent when the number of charges over it
is 1, 2, 3 or 4 respectively.
 Formula of elements
 The molecule of an element is denoted by writing the
symbol of the element and, to the right and below it,
a number expressing the number of atoms in the
molecule.
 Formula of compound
 A molecule of a compound may be made up of
atom of different elements linked up together
chemically and in definite proportion by weight.
 Chemical Formula
 It is of two types:
 (i) Molecular formula:
 Chemical formulae that indicates the
actual number and type of atoms in a
molecule is called molecular formulae.
 (ii) Empirical formula:
 Chemical formulae that indicates only
the relative number of atoms of each
type in a molecule is called empirical
formulae.
 Chemical change
 A chemical change is generally
accompanied by a change of state,
change of colour, evolution of a gas or
change of temperature etc.
 Chemical Reaction
 The process in which substances (reactants) react to
form new compounds (products), is known as
chemical reaction.
 Types of Chemical Reactions Chemical reactions are
of following types Combination Reactions
 In such reactions, two or more substances combine
to give a single substance, e.g.
 CaO  H2O  CaOH2
 Decomposition Reactions
 These are those irreversible reactions in
which, a molecule decomposes into two
or more simpler molecules e.g.,

 2KClO   2KCl  3O
 Dissociation Reactions
 These are those reversible reactions in
which a molecule dissociates into two or
more simple molecules, e.g.,
 2H I H2  I2
 Reversible Reactions
 Reversible reactions are those which occurs in
forward as well as in backward direction but never
go to completion.
 Irreversible Reactions
 Irreversible reactions occur only in forward direction
and go to completion.
 Displacement Reactions
 In such reactions,
 CuSO4  Fe FeSO4  Cu
 Double Displacement Reactions
 These involve exchange of ions between two compounds, e.g.,
 NaCl  AgNO3  AgCl  NaNO3
 Reactions occurring between the ions or ionic compounds, are very
fast.
 Exothermic Reactions
 These are those reactions in which energy is released, e.g., burning
of natural gas, respiration, decomposition of vegetable matter into
compost, combustion reactions etc./
 Endothermic Reactions
 These are those reactions in which energy is consumed, e.g.,
digestion, photosynthesis, evoporation of water, melting of an ice, etc
 Redox Reactions
 In such reactions, oxidation and reduction occur
simultaneously. These are called disproportionation
reaction when the same element is oxidised as well as
reduced.
 Oxidation
 It involves addition of oxygen or any other
electronegative element like fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl),
nitrogen (N), etc.
 It involves removal of hydrogen (H) or any other
electropositive element like sodium (Na). It involves loss of
electrons i.e., increase in the positive charge of ion.
 Reduction
 It involves addition of hydrogen or any other
electropositive element.
 It involves removal of oxygen or any other
electronegative element. It involves gain of
electron, i.e., decrease in oxidation state.

 Oxidising Agent or Oxidant

 These are the substances that have the ability to
oxidise other substances, e.g.,
 Reducing Agent or Reductant
 These are the substances that have the
ability to reduce other substances, transfer
electrons to another substance; e.g.,
electropositive element, metals such as
lithium, sodium, magnesium, iron, zinc, and
aluminium, and hydride transfer reagents,
such as NaBH4 and LiAlH4, etc. Reduction
 Chemical equation
 The qualitative representation of a chemical
reaction in a short hand or concise form in term
of symbols and formulae, is called a chemical
equation.
 Rancidity: The most important cause of
deterioration in fats and fatty foods is oxidation
of fats. What we perceive is an unpleasant
change in the flavour and odour of a food,
called rancidity.
 Doberiner’s Law of Triads
 According to this law, “in certain triads
(group of three elements) the atomic
mass of the central element was the
arithmetic mean of the atomic masses of
the other two elements.”
 Limitations of Doberiner’s Triads: He could identify only a
few such triads and so the law could not gain importance. In many
traids like in the triad of Fe, Co, Ni, all the three elements have a
nearly equal atomic mass and thus does not follow the above law.
 Newland’s Law of Octaves
 According to this law “the elements are arranged in such a
way that the eighth element starting from a given one has
properties which are a repetition of those of the first if arranged in
order of increasing atomic weight like the eight note of musical
scale.”
 (i) According to Newland only 56 elements exist in nature and
no more elements would be discovered in the future. But later
on several new element were discovered whose properties
did not fit into law of octaves.
 (ii) In order to fit new elements into his table Newland
adjusted two elements in the same column, but placed
some unlike elements under the same column.
 Thus, Newland’s classification was not accepted.
 Mendeleev arranged 63 elements known at that time in the periodic table. According to
Mendeleev, “the properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.” The
table consists of eight vertical column called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called ‘periods’.

 Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table:

• At some places the order of atomic weight was changed in order to justify the hemical and
physical nature.
• Mendeleev left some gap for new elements which were not discovered at that time.
• One of the strengths of Mendeleev’s periodic table was that when inert gases were
discovered they could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing order.
 Achievements of Mendeleev’s periodic table;
 The arrangement of elements in groups and periods made the study of elements quite
systematic
 Prediction of new elements and their properties: Many gaps were left in this table for
 undiscovered elements. The elements silicon, gallium and germanium were discovered in
 this manner.
 Correction of doubtful atomic masses: Mendeleev corrected the atomic masses of
 certain elements with the help of their expected positions and properties.

 Limitations of Mendeleev’s classification:

 He could not assign a correct position of hydrogen in his periodic table, as the properties of
 hydrogen resembles both with alkali metals as well as with halogens.
 The isotopes of the same element will be given different position if atomic number is taken as
 basis, which will disturb the symmetry of the periodic table.
 The atomic masses do not increases in a regular manner in going from one elements to the
next. So it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two
elements.
 Characteristics of the Periodic Table
 Its main characteristics are:
 In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in vertical rows called
groups and horizontal rows called periods.
 There are eight groups indicated by Roman Numerals I, II, III, IV, V, VI,
VII,, VIII. The elements belonging to first seven groups have been divided
into sub-groups designated as A and B on the basis of similarities. Group
VIII consists of nine elements arranged in three triads.
 There are six periods (numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). In order to
accommodate more elements, the periods 4, 5, 6 are divided into two
halves. The first half of the elements are placed in the upper left corners
and the second half occupy lower right corners in each box.
 Modern this law was given by Henry
Moseley in 1913. It states, “Properties of the
elements are the periodic function of their
atomic numbers”.
 Cause of periodicity: Periodicity may be
defined as the repetition of the similar
properties of the elements placed in a
group and separated by certain definite
gap of atomic numbers.
 Modern periodic table
 Moseley proposed this modern periodic
table and according to which “the
physical and chemical properties of
elements are periodic function of their
atomic number and not the atomic
weight.”
 (i ) The modern periodic table has 18 vertical columns called
“groups” and seven horizontal rows called “periods”. The groups
have been numbered 1, 2,3.......18 from left to right.
 The elements belonging to a particular group make a family and
usually named after the first member. In a group all the elements
contain the same number of valence electrons.
 In a period all the elements contain the same number of shells,
but as we move from left to right the number of valence shell
electrons increases by one unit.
 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated
in a shell can be calculated by the formula 2n2 where n is the
number of the given shell from the nucleus
 Trends in modern periodic table
 The trends observed in some important
properties of the elements in moving
down the group (from top to bottom of
the table) and across a period (from left
to right in a period) are discussed below:
 It generally increases on moving down the
group because number of shells increase.
 It decreases along a period from left to
right. Thus, size of alkali metal is largest and
that of halogens is samllest in a period.
 Smallest atom is hydrogen and largest atom
is cesium.
 Most poisonous metal is plutonium.
 It is the combining capacity of an element.
 It increases from 1 to 7 along a period with respect to oxygen whereas
with respect to hydrogen, it first increases from 1 to 4 and then
decreases to 0.
 For alkali metal (i.e., sodium, potassium, etc.,) it is 1, for alkaline Earth
metals (i.e., magnesium, calcium, etc.,) it is 2, for aluminium, it is 3 and
for nitrogen it is 3. It remains the same in a group.
 For s-block elements, all the elements in a group have same valency.
 For p-block elements, they show variable valencies P(3, 5), S(4, 6) but
tendency to show higher valency decreases when we move down in
a group due to inert pair effect.
 For d-block (Fe(2, 3,), Cu(1, 2) elements, the elements of same group
may have different valencies, and the element itself exhibit different
valencies.
 In a period from left to right metallic
nature decreases while non-metallic
character increases.
 In a group metallic character increases
from top to bottom while non-metallic
character decrease.
 The relative tendency of an atom to
attract the shared pair of electrons
towards itself is called electronegativity.
 In a period from left to right, the value of
electronegativity increases
 In a group from top to bottom the value
of electronegativity decreases.
 Acids and Bases
 The term acid, in fact, comes from the
latin term acere, which means “Sour”. In
everyday life we come across many
compounds that chemists classify as
acids. Bases are compounds which taste
bitter eg. milk of magnesia.
 A. Properties of acids chemical
properties:
 (i) Action of metals
 Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
 ii) Action with metal (Basic oxides)
 Basic oxide + Acid Salt +Water
(neutralisation reaction)
 (iii) Action with metal carbonates and metal
hydrogen carbonates Carbonate/bicarbonate +
Acid Salt + water + carbon dioxide.
 B. Properties of bases chemical Properties:
 Reaction of metals with bases: Metals (e.g. Zn, Al, Sn)
dissolve in NaOH (an alkali) to liberate hydrogen gas.
 Action with acids: It is a neutralisation reaction. Base
+ Acid Salt + Water
 Non-metallic oxides react in the same way hence
nonmetallic oxides are acidic in nature.
 weak
strong acid
acid (partially
(completel ionised in
y ionised in water)
water HCl, CH3
HNO3, COOH,
H2CO3,
H2SO4 HCOOH
 Basicity of an acid: The number of
removable hydrogen ions from an acid is
called basicity of that acid.
 Mono basic acid (one removable H+
ion) — HCl, HNO3
 Dibasic acid (two removable H+ ion) —
 H2 SO4 , H2 CO 3, H 2PO
 Acidity of a base: The number of
removable hydroxyl (OH–) ions from a base is
called acidity of a base.
 Acidity of NaOH = 1 Acidity of KOH = 1
 Acidity of Ca(OH) = 2
 pH Scale
 It is a scale that is used for measuring H+ ion
(hydrogen ion) concentration of a solution. The
term pH stands for “potential” of “hydrogen”. It
is the amount of hydrogen ions in a particular
solution.
 For acids pH < 7 For bases pH > 7
 For neutral substances pH = 7
 Importance of pH in Daily Life
 (i) Blood pH: For proper functioning our
body needs to maintain blood pH between
7.35 and 7.45. Values of blood pH greater than
7.8 or less than 6.8 often results in death.
 (ii) Acid rain: When pH of rain water is less
than 5.6, it is called acid rain. When acid rain
flows into rivers, it lowers the pH of river
water.
 Substance pH value Substance pH value

Hydrochloric acid 1.0 Bread 5.5

Sulphuric acid 1.2 Potatoes 5.8

Gastric juice 2.0 Rain water 6.2

Lemon 2.3 Milk 6.6

Vinegar (Acetic acid) 2.8 Pure water 7.0

Soft drink 3.0 Egg 7.8

Apple 3.1 Sea water 8.5

Grape 3.1 Ammonium hydroxide 11.1

 Substance pH value Substance pH value
Tomato 4.2 Sodium hydroxide 13.0
Banana 4.6
Battery acid, 0 Stomach acid, 1
Baking soda, 8 Washing soda, Na2CO3 9
NaHCO3
Milk of magnesia, 10 Aqueous household 11
Mg(OH)2 ammonia, NH3
Limewater, Ca(OH)2 12 Drano, 0.1 M 13
NaOH
Drano, 1.0 M 14
NaOH
 Salts
 A salt is an ionic compound which
dissociates to yield a positive ion other than
hydrogen ion (H+) and negative ion other than
hydroxyl ion (OH–) e.g. NaCl.
 Salts are formed by the reaction of acid and
base which is also known as neutralisation.
 Baking soda, Sodium hydrogen
carbonate:
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) is a
mid non-corrosive base.
 In baking powder: The most practical use of baking soda is as
a leavening agent in baking.

 Asan antacid: Baking soda reacts with acid due to its alkaline
nature and neutralizes acidity (i.e. acts as an antacid).

 In fire extinguishers: It is used in

soda-acid fire extinguisher.
Ant or bee sting contains methanoic or formic acid. Due
to which victim feels pain and irritation. Use of a mild base like
baking soda is a remedy for it.
 (ii) Washing soda, Na2CO3.10H2O,
 Sodium carbonate
 Sodium carbonate can be obtained by heating baking
soda; recrystallisation of sodium carbonate gives washing
soda. It is also a basic salt
 Uses:
 Sodium carbonate (washing soda) is used in glass, soap
and paper industries.
 It is used for removing permanent hardness of water.
 (iii)
Bleaching powder
 Calcium hypochlorite is a chemical
compound with formula CaOCl2. It is a
yellowish powder with smell of chlorine. It
is widely used for water treatment and as a
bleaching agent (bleaching powder).
 2Ca(OH) + 2Cl CaOCl2 + CaCl2 + 2H2O
 Uses:
It is used for bleaching cotton and linen in
the textile industry, for bleaching wood pulp
in paper factories.
It is used for disinfecting drinking water.
 (iv) Plaster of Paris, CaSO .1/2 H O
 It can be obtained by heating gypsum
(CaSO4. 2H2O)
 (CaSO4.2H2O  heat  CaSO4. H2O 

H2O
 Plaster of paris is a white powder and on
mixing with water it changes to gypsum once
again giving a hard solid mass
 Uses:
It is used for making moulds or casts for toys,
pottery, ceramics etc.
It is used in surgical bandages for setting
fractured bones.
 There are 118 elements present in the
periodic table. New 4 elements have been
added recently, earlier it was 114 elements.
These elements can be broadly classified into
two categories, i.e. metals and non- metals.
Out of 118 elements, 22 are non- metals.
Some elements share the property of both
metal & non-metal are called metalloid.
 List of metalloid : Silicon (Si), Germa- nium (Ge), Arsenic (As) Antimony (Sb), Tellurium (Te)
 Newly added 4 elements in Periodic table are :
 115 Ununpentium (Uup)
 116 Livelmorium (Lv)
 117 Ununxptium (Uus)
 118 Ununoctium (Uuo).
 Physical properties of metals:
 They are usually shiny i.e. have a metallic lustre.
 Metals have a high density.
 Metals are ductile, i.e. they can be drawn into wires.
 Metals are malleable i.e. they can be hammered into thin sheets.
 Metals are good conductors of electricity.
 Metals have high melting point and are generally in solid state at room temperature.
 Metals are good conductors of heat and sound.
Metals are used in manufacturing of bridges, railways, aeroplanes,
diesel mobile units (DMU), electric mobile units (EMU), motor
cars, electric motors, telephones, televisions, interplanetary space
vehicles, or even common articles like cooking utensils and coins.
Metals are very important for the economy of a country. Few metals,
such as titanium, chromium, manganese and zirconium are
strategic metals. These metals and their alloys find wide applications
in atomic energy, space science projects, jet engines and high grade
steels.
Gold and silver ornaments are obtained from small pieces of metals
by hammering.
 Noble metal: Noble metals are metals that
are resistant to corrosion or oxidation,
unlike most base metals. For example
tantalum, gold, platinum, and rhodium.
 Precious metal: A precious metal is a rare
metallic chemical element of high economic value.
Precious metals include the platinum group
metals: ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium,
iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the
most widely traded. The arrangement of metals
in the decreasing order of their activity is known
as activity or reactivity series. It is also known as
electrochemical series.
 Alloy: An alloy is a mixture of two or more
elements in solid solution in which the
major component is a metal. Combining
different ratios of metals as alloys modify
the properties of pure metals to produce
desirable characteristics.
 Alloy Composition Uses

1 Brass Cu = 80%, Zn = 20% For making utensils and cartridges.

2 Bronze Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For making statues, medals, ships,

coins and
machines
3 Solder Sn = 50%, Pb = 50% For joining metals, solding wire and
electronic
components etc.
4 Duralumin Al = 95.5%, Cu = 3%, Used in bodies of aircrafts, kitchen
Mn = 1.0%, Mg = 0.5% ware and
automobile parts etc.
5 German Silver Cu = 60%, Zn = 20%, For making utensils and ornaments
Ni = 20%

6 Gun metal Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% For making gears and castings etc.

7 Bell metal Cu = 80%, Sn = 20% For making bells, gangs etc.

9 Magnalium Al = 90%, Mg = 10% For making balance beams, light

instruments.

10 Type metal Pb = 82%, Sb = 15%, For making casting type

Sn = 3%

11 Stainless steel Fe, Ni, Cr, C For making utensils, cutlery etc.
 Physical properties of non-metals:
 They are dull, however diamond, graphite and iodine are
lustrous.
 They are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Graphite is a
good conductor.
 They are weak and brittle (they easily break or shatter).
 They have a low density (they feel light for their size).
 They do not make a ringing sound when they are hit.
 Melting points and boiling points are usually low.
 Non-metals are usually soft. (Diamond is an exception, it is quite
hard. It is a crystalline solid).
 They exist in allotropic forms.
 Uses of Non-Metals
 Oxygen is essential for survival of life.
 Hydrogen is used to convert vegetable oil into vegetable ghee by
hydrogenation.
 Nitrogen is used to preserve food and for manufacturing proteins by
plants.
 Carbon in the form of diamond is used for cutting rocks and in the form
of graphite as electrode and in manufacturing of lead pencils.
 Sulphur is used in vulcanization of rubber, as fungicide and in
manufacture of dyes, gun powder etc.
 Chlorine is used as water disinfectant and in the manufacture of
pesticides like gammaxene.
 (i) Minerals: The natural substance in which
the metals or their compounds occur in the
earth is called minerals.
 Ores: The minerals from which the metals
can be conveniently and economically
extracted are called ores.
 Native ores: These ores contain metals in
the free state, e.g., silver, gold, platinum.
 Metallurgy: The whole process of obtaining a pure
metal from one of its ore is known as metallurgy
 Gangue or matrix: Ores usually contain soil, sand,
stones and others useless silicates. These undesired
impurities present in ores are called gangue or matrix.
 The removal of unwanted earthy and silicious
impurities from the ore is called ore-dressing or
concentration of ores and the process used to
concentrate an ore is called the benefication
process.
 S. Metal obtained from the ore
Name of the ore Formula of the ore Types of ore
no.

1 Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Oxide Aluminium (Al)

2. Haematite Fe2O3 Oxide Iron (Fe)

3. Magnetite Fe2O4 Oxide Iron (Fe)

4. Zincite ZnO Oxide Zinc (Zn)

5. Cuprite Cu2O Oxide Copper (Cu)

6. Litharge PbO Oxide Lead (Pb)

7. Malachite [Link](OH)2 Carbonate Copper (Cu)

8. Magnesite MgCO3 Carbonate Magnesium (Mg)

9. Lime stone CaCO3 Carbonate Calcium (Ca)

10. Cinnabar HgS Sulphide Mercury (Hg)

11. Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Sulphide Copper (Cu)

12. Zinc blende ZnS Sulphide Zinc (Zn)

13. Galena PbS Sulphide Lead (Pb)

14. Common salt NaCl Chloride (Halide) Sodium (Na)

15. Fluorspar CaF2 Fluoride Calcium (Ca)
(Halide)
16. Horn silver AgCl Chloride (Halide) Silver (Ag)
17. Chalcocite Cu2S Sulphide Copper (Cu)
 Itis the study of production of electricity
from energy released during spontaneous
chemical reactions and use of electrical
energy to carry out non-spontaneous
chemical transformations.
 Electrolysis
 The process in which a non-spontaneous
reaction is carried out by using electrical
energy.
 It is used
in production of oxygen for spacecraft and nuclear
submarines.
in layering metals to fortify them.
in production of hydrogen for fuel.
In electrolytic etching of metal surfaces like tools or
knives with a permanent mark or logo.
Electrometallurgy is the process of reduction of
metallic compound into pure metal by electrolysis.
Anodisation is an electrolytic process that
makes the surface of metals resistant to
corrosion.
Electrolysis of brine (the water,
saturated or nearly saturated with salt,
usually sodium chloride) gives hydrogen
and chlorine. The products are gaseous.
 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
 First Law of Electrolysis
 It states that the quantity of elements separated
by passing an electric current through a molten or
dissolved salt is proportional to the quantity of
electric charge passed through the circuit.
 w  Q ; w ZQ = Z It (Charge Q = Current × Time)
 Second Law of Electrolysis
 The amount of different substances liberated at
the electrodes by the same quantity of electricity
passing through the electrolytic solution are
proportional to their chemical equivalent weights

W1 E1
 W  E or 

 W2 E2
It is a device that produces an electric current from
energy released by a spontaneous redox reaction (in
short which converts chemical energy into electrical
energy). This kind of cell includes the galvanic cell or
voltaic cell.
It has two conductive electrodes, i.e., anode (at which
oxidation occurs) and cathode (at which reduction
occurs)
It contains an electrolyte in between the electrodes,
which contains ions that can move freely.
It is an arrangement of one or more cells
connected in series.
It is basically a galvanic cell.
 These are of two types
[Link] batteries (non-rechargeable) e.g., dry
cell, mercury cell etc.
[Link] batteries (rechargeable) e.g., lead
storage battery, nickel- cadmium battery.
It consists of a zinc container that acts as
anode and carbon (graphite) rod surrounded
by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon
which acts as cathode. It contains a paste of
NH4Cl and ZnCl2 in between the electrodes.
It is used in transistors and clocks.
It has a potential of 1.5 V.
It is suitable for the low current devices like
hearing aids and camera, etc.
It consists of zinc-mercury amalgam as anode
and a paste of HgO and carbon as cathode. The
electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.
It has potential of 1.35 V. This potentialremains
constant during its whole life.
 It is a secondary battery.
 It acts as electrochemical cell during discharging (i.e., during use)
and as electrolytic cell during charging.
 It is used in automobiles and invertors.
 It consists of lead as anode and a grid of lead packed with lead
dioxide (PbO2) as cathode. A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used
as an electrolyte.
 It consists of a series of six identical cells assembled in series. Each
cell may produce a potential of 2 V, hence overall voltage produced is
12 V.
 PbSO4 is formed when lead storage battery is in use and lead dioxide
are formed when it is charged.
 Fuel Cell
 These are galvanic cells which use energy
of combustion of fuels like hydrogen (H2),
methane (CH4), methanol (CH3OH), etc. as
the source to produce electrical energy. e.g.
hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
 Corrosion of Metals
 Corrosion is an oxidation reaction with
atmospheric oxygen in the presence of
water on the surface of a metal. Rusting is
4Fe + 3O2 + 6H2O → 4Fe(OH)3.
 Prevention of Corrosion
 Iron and steel (alloy of iron)
are most easily
protected by paint which p rovides a barrier
between the metal and air/water. Moving
parts on machines can be protected by a
water repellent oil or grease layer. Other
important methods are
(i) Alloying: Iron or steel along with other
metals can also be protected by ‘alloying’ or
mixing with other metals (e.g., chromium)
to make non-rusting alloys.
(ii) Galvanizing: Coating iron or steel with a
thin zinc layer is called ‘galvanizing’.
 Glass
 It consists of a mixture of two or more silicates./
 Preparation of glass
 Common glass (or soft glass): It is used to make
bottles, glass wares etc. and is obtained by heating
together silica (in the form of sand), sodium carbonate or
sodium sulphate and chalk or lime stone (calcium
carbonate). Some broken glass and a little coke are
usually added. The glass so prepared consists of silicates
of sodium and calcium.
 Na2CO3(s) + SiO2(s) 
(silica)Na2SiO3(s) + CO2(g)

 Na2SO4(s) + SiO2(s)  Na2SiO3(s) +

SO3(g)

 CaCO3(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s) + CO2(g)

  Hard glass: For preparation of hard glass
K2CO3 is used in place of Na2CO3. It consists of
a mixture of calcium and potassium silicates.
 Physical properties of glass
 Hard, rigid, high viscosity, bad conductor of heat and electricity, brittle,
etc.
 Blowing: It is a method to cast the molten glass into different moulds.
There are two different methods of glass blowing:
(i)Free blowing and ( ii) mould blowing
 Free blowing: It involves the blowing of air to inflate the molten glass
which is gathered at one end of the blow pipe to give the desired shape.
 Mould blowing: This method was developed after the technique of
free blowing. In this method, molten glass is inflated into a wooden or
metal carved mould with the help of blow pipe which gives the molten
glass the shape and design of the interior of the mould
 Chemical properties of glass
• It is resistant to action of air and acids
• except hydroflouric acid.
• It is alkaline in nature.
• It slowly reacts with water to form alkaline
solution.
 Processed glass Applications

1 Laminated glass Used for doors and windows of automobiles.

it has high strength.

2 Fibre glass Used for reinforcing purpose (it has enough

tensile strength)

3 Foam glass Used for civil construction and insulation

purposes (it is light weight).

4 Opaque glass In it a non-transparent glass filters the

light entering into it. Thus provides an
aesthetic look.
 Natural Resources
 These resources are given by nature like
air,
 water, mineral, sunlight, etc.
 Renewable Natural Resources
 These are available in excess amount
e.g., air, sunlight, etc.
 Non-Renewable Natural Resources These
resources are available in limited
quantity, e.g., minerals, coal petroleum,
natural gas, etc.
 Fuels
 These are the substance which produce
heat and light on combustion.
 Coal
It is believedto have been formed by the slow carbonisation of
vegetable matter buried underneath the Earth from centuries
ago, in limited supply of air under high temperature and
pressure prevailing there.
It is available in different varieties: Peat (60% C), lignite or
brown coal (70% C) bituminous coal (80% C) and anthracite
coal (90% C).
Bituminous is the most common variety of coal. Coal is used for
the synthesis of water gas and producer gas.
 Petroleum
It is a dark coloured oily liquid with
offensive odour. It is also called rock oil,
mineral oil, crude oil or black gold.
When subjected to fractional
distillation, it gives different products at
different temperatures.
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
 It is a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane and
some propane.
It is easily compressed under pressure as
liquid and stored in iron cylinders.
A strong foul smelling substance called ethyl
mercaptan, is added to LPG which detect the
gas leakage.
It consists mainly of methane (95%) which
is a relatively unreactive hydrocarbon and
makes its nearly complete combustion.
It has octane rating 130.
 Fuel Composition Source

Water gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + Hydrogen (H2) By passing stem over red hot
coke
Producer gas Carbon monoxide (CO) + Nitrogen (N2) by passing insufficient air ober red
hot coke
Oil gas Methane (CH4) + Ethylene (C2H4) + By destructive distillation of
Acetylene (C2H2) kerosene
Coal gas Hydrogen (H2) + Methane (CH4) + by fractional distillation of wood
Ethylene + Acetylene + CO
Natural gas Methane (83%) + Ethane From petroleum

LPG Butane (C4H10) + Propane (C3H8) From oil wells

Biogas or Gobar gas Methane (CH4) + Carbon dioxide (CO2) + From organic wastes
Hydrogen (H2) + Nitrogen (N2)
 Calorific Value
Fuel
(kJ/g)
Hydrogen 150

Methane 55

Petrol 50

LPG 50

Natural gas 35-50

Kerosene oil 48

Diesel 45

Bio gas 35-40

Coal 25-32

Ethanol 30

Wood 17

Cow dung 6-8

 Fertilizers
 Fertilizers are chemical compounds
which when added to the soil increase
their fertility and directly supply the need
of essential elements [N, P, K] of primary
importance.
 Classification
 Chemical fertilizers are broadly classified into
the following three types:
 Nitrogenous fertilizers: Ammonium sulphate,
urea etc.
 Phosphatic fertilizers: Super phosphate,
ammonium phosphate
 Potash fertilizers: Potassium chlo- ride,
potassium sulphate.
 Soaps and Detergents
 Soap: Fatty acid salts of sodium and
potassium are known as soaps. These
are/prepared by the action of fatty acids with
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide.
Fatty acid + sodium hydroxide  Soap +
glycerol.
 Detergents are sodium salt of long chain
sulphonic acids or alkyl hydrogen sulphate./
 Advantages of detergents over soaps
 Detergents can be used for laundering
even with hard water as they are soluble
even in hard water.
 Detergents possess better cleansing
properties than soaps.
 Disadvantages of detergents over soap:
Detergents are prepared from
hydrocarbons, while soaps are prepared
from edible fatty oils. Thus they are non
biodegradable.
 Saponification
 It is the process of making of soap by the hydrolysis of
fats and oils with alkalis.
 Both soaps and detergents are soluble in water and
act as surfactants which reduce the surface tension
of water to a great extent. This increases the water -
fabric interaction as a consequence of which dirt
particles, grease spots etc are washed away
effectively. In other words soaps and detergents
enhance the cleansing action of water.
 Industrial Chemical Name and
Name Formula

Alum Potassium aluminium sulphate (K2SO4  Al2(SO4)3

 24 H2O)

Alcohol Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)

Baking powder Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

Blue vitriol Copper sulphate (CuSO4  5H2O)

Bleaching powder Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2)

Borax Sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na2B4O7  10H2O)

Brine or salt Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Calomel Mercurous chloride (Hg2Cl2 or HgCl)

Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Chile salt petre Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)

Chloroform Trichloromethane (CHCl3)

Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide (CO2)

Epsum Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4 7H2O)

Glauber’s salt Sodium sulphate decahydrate (Na2SO4 10H2O)

Green vitriol Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4 7H2O)

Gypsum Calcium sulphate (CaSO4 2H2O)

Hypo Sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate (Na2S2O3 5H2O)

Laughing gas Nitrous oxide (N2O)

Litharge Lead oxide (PbO)

Lunar castic Silver nitrate (AgNO3)

Magnesia Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Marble or chalk Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)

or pearl
Marsh gas Methane (CH4)

Mohr’s salt Ferrous ammonium

sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4 FeSO4 6H2O
Mosaic gold Stannous sulphide (SnS2)

Muriatic acid Hydrogen chloride (HCl)

Pearl ash Potassium carbonate (K2CO3)

 Plaster of Paris Calcium sulphate hemihydrate
CaSO  1 H O
 4 2 2 
Quicklime Calcium oxide (CaO)

Red lead Lead peroxide (Pb3O4)

Rock salt Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Ruby or sapphire Aluminium oxide, (Al2O3)

Sand Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

Sal ammoniac Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)

Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]

Spirit Methyl alcohol (CH3OH)

Soda ash Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)

Vinegar Acetic acid (CH3COOH)

Vermilion Mercuric sulphide (HgS)

Washing soda Sodium carbonate decahydrate

(Na2CO3  10H2O)
White vitriol Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4  7H2O)
 Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are defined as the
optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes
or ketones or substances which yield
these on hydrolysis./
 Classification of Carbohydrates
 Based on Molecular Size
Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides
 Based on Nature
 Carbohydrates are also classified as
reducing and non-reducing sugars
depending on whether they reduce
Fehlings and Tollen’s reagent or not. Based
on Taste Carbohydrates with sweet taste
are called sugars while those without a
sweet taste are called non-sugars.
 Lipid
 Lipids are organic compounds soluble in non-
polar fat solvents such as acetone, ether,
chloroform, benzene, etc. and insoluble in
water.
 The most important role of lipids is that of
biological fuel. Lipids supply more energy than
carbohydrates, excess of lipids is stored in the
body.
Proteins are highly complex, natural compounds,
composed of a large number of different amino
acids joined together with peptide linkage, i.e. they
are naturally occurring polypeptides.
The biological importance of proteins can be judged
by the fact that the animals can live for a long time
without fat or carbohydrate, but not without
protein.
Nucleic acids are colourless, complex,
amorphous, compounds made up of three
units: bases, sugar and phosphoric acid.
These are macro-molecules of high
molecular weight and are present in every
living cell.
 Vitamins
 Vitamins are organic compounds
required in the diet in small omounts to
perform specific biological functions for
maintenance of optimum growth and
health.
Sr.
Name of Vitamins Source Deficiency Diseases
No.
1 Vitamin A (Retinol) Cod, liver oil, carrots, egg, Xerophthalmia (hardening of
butter and milk cornea of eye) Night blindness
2 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Seeds, whole grains, Pulses, nuts Beri beri (loss of appetite,
retarded growth)
3 Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver, Cheilosis (fissuring at corners of
(Riboflavin) Kidney mouth and lips), digestive
disorders and burning sensation
of the skin
4 Vitamin B5 Barley, liver, maize, wheat Pellagra (skin pigmentation)
(Nicotinamide) degeneration of spinal cord)
5 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Yeast, milk, egg yolk, rice, Anaemia
cereals and grams
6 Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobal- Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious anaemia (RBC
amine) deficient in haemoglobin)
7 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Citrus fruits, amla and green Scurvy (bleeding gums)
leafy vegetables
8 Vitamin D (Calciferol) Exposure to sunlight, Rickets (bone
fish and egg yolk deformities in
children) and osteo-
malacia (soft bones
and joint pain in
adults)
9 Vitamin E (Tocoferol) Vegetable oils like Increased fragility of
wheat germ oil, RBCs and muscular
cotton seed oil, weakness, Antifertility
sunflower oil, etc
10 Vitamin K (phyllo- Green leafy vegetables Increased blood
quinone) clotting time
 Polymers
 They
are made up of many repeating units
known as monomers.

 Some common man-made

polymers and their uses
 Polymer Uses
Polythene Packaging material,
carry bags, bottles
Polypropene Bottles, Crates
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Pipes insulation
Nylon (Polyester) Fibres, ropes
Teflon Nonstick kitchen ware
Vinyl rubber Rubber erasers
Polystyrene Foam, Thermocol
Poly (Styrene butadiene) Rubber, bubble gum
Bakelite Electrical insulation buttons
Lexan Bullet proof glass
Melamine Crockery
 Pollutants
 These are the substances that contaminate the
environment. Pollutants are of two types
 Primary Pollutants: These persist in the environment in
the form, they are produced e.g., sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), etc.
 Secondary Pollutants: These are the products of
reaction of primary pollutants e.g., PAN
(Perocyacylnitrates), ozone (O3), aldehyde, etc.
 Pollutants Primary sources Harmful Effects

SO2 Vehicular combustion, fossil Acid rain, irritation in eyes,

burning premature falling of leaves

CO and CO2 Vehicular combustion, burning of Global warming, green house

fuels and hydrocarbons effect, CO has great affinity for
hydrocarbons, haemoglobin and
forms carboxy haemoglobin
Smoke, fly ash and Thermal power stations Respiratory diseases.
soot

Lead and mercury Autoexhaust from gasoline (petrol), Affects the nervous system and
paints, storage batteries. Fossil fuel circulatory system causing nerve
like coal burning. fuel burning and brain damage
CFCs (Chloro fluoro Refriagerants and aerosol Kidney damage and ozone
Carbon) depletion.
Pesticides and insecticides Improper use in agriculture like Toxic to fishes, predatory birds and
DDT, BHC, mosquito repellants mammals

Plastics Homes and industries Kills fishes and animals. Persists in

the environment because of
non- biodegrabality.
 Chlorine compounds Water disinfection with chlorine, Fatal for plankton (organisms floating
paper industries and bleaching on the surface of water), foul taste and
powder odour can cause Cancer in humans.

Lead paints Leaded gasoline Toxic to organisms

Mercury Natural evaporation and dissolved Highly toxic to humans

industrial wastes, fungicides

Acids Mine drainage, industrial wastes Mine drainage, industrial wastes Kills organisms

Sediments Natural errosion, run off from factories, Reduces ability of water to assimilate
mining and oxygen.
construction activities, fertilizer and other
THANKS