1 EVOLUTION

Origin of life
1. When we see stars we apparently are peeping into the past. Explain.
2. State Big Bang Theory to explain origin of Universe.
• The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe.
• According to it, the universe originated about 20 billion years ago due to a thermonuclear explosion of a
dense entity.
• This single huge explosion which is unimaginable in physical terms, is called as big bang theory.
3. When and how did the earth originate?
• The universe originated about 13.8 billion years ago due to a thermonuclear explosion of a dense entity. The
universe expanded and hence, the temperature came down.
• Universe contains huge cluster of galaxies. Galaxies are formed no. of stars and clouds of gas and dust.
• The gaseous clouds which were formed by big bang condensed under gravitation and formed the galaxies of
the present day forms..
• In the solar system of the Milky Way galaxy, earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years
Back.
• With the decrease in temperature Hydrogen and Helium formed sometimes later.
• There was no atmosphere on early earth. It was formed later.
• Water vapour, methane , CO2 and ammonia released from molten mass covered the surface.
• The UV rays from the sun broke up water into hydrogen and oxygen and the lighter H 2 escaped.
• Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and others.
• The ozone layer was formed.
• As it cooled , the water vapour fell as rain, to fill the depression and form oceans.
• Life appeared almost 4 billion years back.
4. Briefly describe the different theory to explain origin of life.

Theories for origin of life:

1. Theory of Special Creation:
According to this theory, “life originated on this earth from super natural powers like god”. He created all
plants and animals, which appeared on earth in the form they exist today.
2. Theory of Spontaneous generation or Abiogenesis:
According to this theory “life originated on earth from non-living objects spontaneously by a process
called Abiogenesis (origin of life from non-living matter)”.
It was believed that fishes and frogs originated from mud, maggots arouse from decaying meat and insects from
plant juices and microorganisms from air & water.
3. Theory of biogenesis
But later Louis Pasteur disproved this theory and stated that “life originate from pre-existing life”.
4. Theory of chemical evolution of life
A.I. Oparin and J.B.S. Haldane believed that
• The conditions on primitive earth were high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere containing
CH4, NH3 etc.
• The first form of life could have come from pre -existing non living organic molecules ( e.g RNA, protein
etc.)
• The formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution. i.e., formation of diverse organic molecules from
inorganic constituents
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• Accumulation of such organic compounds within the oceans, lakes, ponds, pools, etc. over millions of years
must have combined together to form larger organic compounds and various macromolecules like
polypeptides, proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates etc.
• These compounds then encapsulated to produce the first non-cellular living form.
• So according to them,” the first living cell arose from simple inorganic and organic non-living elements – a
process called Abiogenesis”.
5.
(i) Name the scientist who disproved spontaneous generation theory.
(ii) State the two principal outcomes of the experiments conducted by Louis Pasteur on origin of life.
• Louis Pasteur’s experiments demonstrated that life comes only from pre-existing life.
• He showed that in swan-neck pre-sterilised flasks, life did not evolved from ‘killed yeast’ while in another
flask open to air, new living organisms arose from ‘killed yeast.’
6. Describe the experiment that helped Louis Pasteur to dismiss the theory of spontaneous generation of life.
Or What did Louis Pasteur’s experiment on ‘killed yeast’ demonstrate? Name the theory that got
disproved on the basis of his experiment.
• Theory of spontaneous generation states that the life originate from dead, decaying or rolling matters like
storm, dead animals, etc.
• Louis Pasteur rejected the theory of spontaneous generation and demonstrated that life had evoived from pre-
existing life.
• In his experiment, he kept killed yeast cells in presterilised flask and in another flask open into air.
• The life did not evolve in the former, but new living organisms evolved in the another flask.
7. List the two main propositions of Oparin and Haldane.
Two main propositions of Oparin and Haldane were
• The primitive atmosphere was reducing, i.e. free oxygen was absent which favour a series of reactions.
• There was high temperature, high methane, ammonia and hydrogen gas in the atmosphere.
8. State two postulates of Oparin and Haldane’s theory with reference to the origin of life. Or Mention the
conditions of atmosphere of primitive earth that favoured abiotic origin of life on earth? Or Who proposed
the most accepted theory of origin of life? What were the conditions prevailing about 3.6 billion years ago,
to create life on primitive earth?
• Oparin and Haldane proposed the following postulates with reference to origin of life.
• The first form of life came from pre-existing non-living organic molecules.
• The conditions on earth favouring chemical evolution were high temperature, volcanic storms and reducing
atmosphere.
9. Write the hypothetical proposals put forth by Oparin and Haldane.
Oparin and Haldane proposed the theory of chemical evolution. According to them, life originated from pre-
existing non-living organic molecules and the formation of life was preceded by chemical evolution.
10. What was proposed by Oparin and Haldane on origin of life? How did SL Miller’s experiment support
their proposal?
Or
Mention the contribution of SL Miller’s experiment to origin of life.
• Oparin and Haldane proposed that life originated on earth spontaneously from non-living matter, i.e. organic
molecules.
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• S. L. Miller conducted an experiment, which provided experimental evidence for chemical evolution. He
created conditions similar to primitive atmosphere, in the laboratory such as high temperature, reducing
atmosphere consisting of CH4, NH3, etc.
• When he created an electric discharge in the flask containing all the above stated components at 800°C,
organic molecules, e.g. amino acids were formed.
• Results indicated that the first non-cellular forms of life were created about 3 billion years ago.
• This also supports the hypothesis that life could have originated from organic matter.
11. Write the Oparin and Haldane’s hypothesis about the origin of life on earth. How does meteorite analysis
favour this hypothesis?

Oparin-Haldane theory states that origin of life is the result of a long series of physiochemical changes, brought
about first by chemical evolution and then by biological evolution.
Analysis of meteorites also revealed the presence of similar compounds as found in the primitive atmosphere,
indicating the occurrence of similar processes elsewhere in space.
12. Given below is a diagrammatic representation of the experimental setup used by SL Miller for his
experiment.

(i) Write the names of different gases (B) contained and the conditions set for the reaction in the flask. (ii)
State the type of organic molecule he collected in the water at C.
(iii) Mention A & D in the set up.
(iv) Write the conclusion he arrived at.
(i) Gases were methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapour. In ‘A’ flask electric discharge was created using
electrodes.
(ii) The organic molecules collected in water at ‘C’ were amino acids.
(iii) He concluded that life could have come from pre-existing non-living organic molecules and their formation was
preceded by chemical evolution.
13. State the theory of abiogenesis. How does Miller’s experiment support this theory?
Or
State the views of Oparin and Haldane on evolution. How does SL Miller’s experiment support their views?
or Diagrammatically represent the experimental set up that proves Oparin-Haldane hypothesis.

• The theory of abiogenesis was proposed by Oparin and Haldane. It states that life could have come from pre-
existing non-living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and the formation of life forms was preceded
by chemical evolution, i.e. formation of diverse organic molecules from inorganic constituents.
• In 1953, Urey and Miller conducted an experiment to prove this theory.
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• They created the conditions of primitive earth, i.e. high temperature, volcanic storms, reducing atmosphere
containingCH4, NH3, etc., at laboratory scale.
• They then stimulated electric discharge in a closed flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 and water vapour at 800°C.
They observed the formation of amino acids.
• In similar experiments, they observed the formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.
• These small organic molecules are the building blocks for proteins and other components.
• Hence, this experiment supported that life has came from pre-existing non-living organic molecules
13. Anita and Sunita had a hot argument whether or not life is still originating on the earth today.
(i) As a student of biology what is your answer to the above problem and why?
(ii) What would have been the energy source for origin of life on the earth?
(i) There is no origin of life on earth today because the atmosphere is oxidising and any new molecule if formed will
get oxidised.
(ii) Sunlight (UV rays) and lighting electrical discharge would act as the energy source for origin of life on earth.
14. What is the theory of special creation? Mention its three connotation.

life originated on this earth from super natural powers like god”.
Connotations:
• All living organisms ( species or types) that we see today were created as such.
• The diversity was always the same since creation and will be the same in future also.
• The earth is about 4000 years old.
15. How did Charles Darwin express fitness?
Or
What is ‘fitness of an individual’ according to Darwin?
According to Darwin, fitness of an individual is the ability of an organism to reproduce successfully and leave a large
number of progenies under a particular set of selection pressures.
16. What role does an individual organism play as per Darwin’s theory of natural selection?
According to the Darwin’s theory of natural selection,
Fitness of an individual is the ability of an organism to reproduce successfully and leave a large number of progenies
under a particular set of selection pressures.
The role of an individual organism is: Any population has built in variation in characteristics.
Those characteristics which enable some individual to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food, physical
characters etc.) would outbreed others that are less endowed to survive under such conditions and cause the nature
to select organisms and called natural selection.
17. What is reproductive fitness? How does it lead to natural selection according to Darwin?
• Reproductive fitness refers to the ability of an organism to reproduce successfully and leave a large number
of progenies under a particular set of selection pressures.
• The reproductive capacity varies from animal to animal; and is known as differential reproduction.
• Since the number of individuals is far more than actually can survive, so they compete among themselves for
food, shelter and space.
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• Only those individuals which have favourable variations to survive and reproduce to produce more no. of
progeny while others not suited by the environment perish away.
• Only those individuals that have better reproductive fitness considered as fittest and selected by the nature
(Natural selection) to survive and reproduce successfully. They show variation and form the basis of
evolution.
18. Name the naturalist who also conclude the same regarding natural selection as the mechanism of evolution.

Ans: Alfred Wallace, worked in Malay Archipelago

Evolution of life forms

19. (i) List any four evidences of evolution,
(ii) Explain, any one of the evidences that helps to understand, the concept of evolution.
(i) Evidences of evolution are derived from
Palaeontology (Fossils)
Comparative anatomy and morphology, i.e. homology and analogy
Biochemical/Physiology
Biogeography
Embryology
(ii) Comparative anatomy and morphological evidences show the similarities and differences among the organisms
of today and those that existed years ago.
The evidences come from comparative study of external and internal structure.
I. (a) The organs with same structural design and origin, but different functions are called homologous organs.
Examples are forelimbs of some animals like whales, bats and cheetah have similar anatomical structure, such as
humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges.
(b) Homology in organ indicates common ancestry.
(c) Other examples of homology are vertebrate heart or brain. In plants also, thorns and tendrils of Bougainvillea and
Cucurbita represent homology.
(d) Homology is based on divergent evolution. The same structures developed along different directions due to
adaptations to different needs. The condition is called divergent evolution.
II. (a) Organs which are anatomically different, but functionally similar are called analogous organs.
For example, wings of butterfly and birds. In both, wings perform same function, but they have different origin and
structure.
(b) Analogy refers to a situation exactly opposite to homology.
(c) Analogous organs are a result of convergent evolution. It is the evolution in which different structures evolve for
same function and hence, have similarity. It can be said that above organisms had different structures, but they came
in the same environment and evolved to perform same function.
(d) Other examples of analogy are eyes of Octopus and mammals; flippers of penguins and dolphins.
In plants, sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) are analogous organs.
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20. State the significance of the study of fossils in evolution.

Fossils help us to know
• The morphological details of the organisms that were present in the past and
• Relate them to the organisms of the present for better understanding the process of evolution.
• We can also trace the time at which the particular organism existed.
21. How do palaeontological evidences support evolution of organisms on earth?
• Palaeontology is the study of past life based on fossil records.
• The study of fossils reveals the type of life forms occurring in the past and highlights the course of evolution
of living organisms.
• The distribution of fossils in the sedimentary rocks of different ages fully supports the concept of evolution.
• It shows that structure of wing became more and more complex as we proceed from earliest to recent times.
• From the fossil records it has been concluded that evolution has taken place from the simple to complex forms
in a gradual manner.
22. The microscopic pollen grains of the past are obtained as fossils. Mention the characteristic of the pollen
grains that makes it happen.
• Pollen grain contains sporopollenin which is one of the most resistant organic material.
• It can withstand high temperatures and strong acids and alkali.
• No enzyme degrades sporopollenin.
• Thus they are well preserved as fossils not affected by any factor.
23. Briefly mention the embryological support to explain evolution. Who disapproved this?
• Ernst Haeckel observed that certain features during embryonic stage common to all vertebrates that are absent
in adult. e.g. the embryos of all vertebrates including human develop a row of vestigial gill slits just behind
the head but it is a functional organ only in fish and not found in any other adult vertebrates.
• This indicates the related species have similar developmental pathways inherited from common ancestor.
• However, this proposal was disapproved on careful study performed by Karl Ernst V of other animalson Baer.
He noted that embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
24. How is convergent evolution different from divergent evolution?
• When two or more species belonging to different ancestors develop similar characteristics due to adaptation to a
particular environment, it is known as convergent evolution.
e.g. Eye of the Octopus and of mammals
Flippers of Penguins and Dolphins
Sweet potato and Potato.
• On the contrary, when the species belonging to the same ancestors develop different characteristics due to
environmental changes and evolve into some new species, it is known as divergent evolution.
e.g. Bones of forelimbs of Whales, bats , Cheetah and human
Vertebrate hearts or brains
25. Difference between Homologous and Analogous Structures.
26. Describe the phenomenon in which two organisms occupying the same geographical area show the same
strategies of adaptation.
• The phenomenon is convergent evolution.
• In this process, two organisms belonging to different species, descending from different ancestors, evolve
similar traits in order to adapt to a similar environment.
• For eg, the streamlined body of sharks and dolphins. Sharks are fishes while dolphins are mammals but both
of them have developed streamlined bodies to adapt themselves to swift swimming.
• Spines are modified leaves and thorns are modified stems. Both look alike and have a similar function of
protecting the plants, but are distantly related to each other.
27. What is the driving force behind divergent evolution? Explain.
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•Adaptation is the driving force behind divergent evolution.

•Divergent evolution is the phenomenon in which the organisms descending from common ancestors evolve
gradually into a new species.
• The new species thus formed adapt themselves to the new habitat and environmental conditions. For eg., the
forelimbs of bats, cheetahs, whales and humans have the same anatomical structures but perform different
functions.
• Thus, in these animals, the same structure evolved into different forms according to the needs of the animals.
28. Identify the examples of convergent evolution from the following
(i) Flippers of penguins and dolphins
(ii) Eyes of Octopus and mammals
(iii) Vertebrate brains
(i) and (ii) are the examples of analogous organs representing convergent evolution.
Vertebrate brains are the example of divergent evolution.
28. Identify the examples of homologous structures from the following
(i) Vertebrate hearts
(ii) Thorns in Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
(iii) Food storage organs in sweet potato and potato.
Homologous organs are derived through divergent evolution thus, indicating common ancestry.
Examples of homology are
(i) Vertebrate heart and brain.
(ii) In plants, thorns and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represent homology.
On the other hand, food storage organs, i.e. tubers in sweet potato and potato are analogous organs.
29. Write the similarity between the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat. What do you infer from the
above, with reference to evolution?
Or
Comment on the similarity between the wings of a cockroach and the wings of a bird. What do you infer from
the above, with reference to evolution?
Or
Comment on the similarity between the flippers of dolphin and penguins, with reference to evolution.
• Similarity between the wings of butterfly and bat or cockroach and bird or flippers of dolphin and penguins is
that they perform similar functions but they are dissimilar in their basic structure and development.
• They are thus, analogous organs. With reference to evolution, it can be inferred that these are formed as a result
of convergent evolution.
30.
(i) Identify the following pairs as homologous or analogous organs
(a) Sweet potato and potato.
(b) Eye of Octopus and eye of mammals.
(c) Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
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(d) Forelimbs of bat and whale.

(ii) State the kind of evolution they represent. (All India 2015)
Or
(i) Select the homologous structures from the combinations given below
(a) Forelimbs of whale and bat
(b) Tuber of potato and sweet potato
(c) Eyes of Octopus and mammals.
(d) Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
(ii) State the kind of evolution they represent. (All India 2015)
Or
Select two pairs from the following which exhibit divergent evolution. Give reasons for your answer.
(i) Forelimbs of cheetah and mammals.
(ii) Flippers of dolphins and penguins.
(iii) Wings of butterflies and birds.
(iv) Forelimbs of whales and mammals. (All India 2015)
Or
Write about the ancestry and evolution of bat, horse and human on the basis of a comparative study of their
forelimbs. What are these limbs categorised as?
(i) The given pairs are identified as
(a) Analogous organs.
(b) Analogous organs.
(c) Homologous organs.
(d) Homologous organs.
(ii) (c) and (d) represent divergent evolution while (a) and (b) represent convergent evolution.
Or
(i) (a) Forelimbs of whales and bats and (d) thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita are homologous organs.
(ii) Both these structures represent divergent evolution, i.e. sharing common ancestry, organs with same fundamental
structure but different functions.
Or
Divergent evolution is represented by (i) and (ii).
Or
Divergent evolution is represented by (i) and (ii).
• All mammals, i.e. whales, cheetah, bat and human share similarities in the pattern of bones of forelimbs.
• These forelimbs though perform different functions but have similar anatomical structure, i.e. all of them
have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in their forelimbs.
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• Hence, the same structure is developed along different directions due to the adaptations to different needs in
these animals. This is called divergent evolution and these structures are homologous.
31. Explain with the help of an example the type of evolution homology is based on.
Or
Divergent evolution leads to homologous structures. Explain with the help of an example.
• Divergent evolution is a process, where the same structure develops along different directions in different
organisms due to adaptations to different needs.
• Divergent evolution leads to the development of homologous structures, as they all have similar anatomical
structure and origin, but perform different functions.
• Examples, the thorn of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita are homologous organs as both of them are
modified axillary buds, which perform different functions.
32. State the significance of biochemical similarities among diverse organisms in evolution.
• Similarities in biochemicals such as DNA, help in deriving the line of evolution.
• Organisms with more similar DNA sequences are considered close relatives that might have evolved from
the same ancestor.
33. Convergent evolution leads to analogous structures. Explain with the help of an example.
• Convergent evolution is a process of evolution, where anatomically dissimilar structures in different
organisms perform similar functions.
• It leads to the formation of analogous structures in different groups of organisms as they perform similar
function, but are anatomically different.
• Examples, potato (stem modification) and sweet potato (root modification), flippers of penguins and dolphins.
34. Why are wings of butterfly and birds said to be analogous organs? Name the type of evolution the
analogous organs are a result of.
(i) Differentiate between analogous and homologous structures.
(ii) Select and write analogous structures from the list given below.
(a) Wings of butterfly and birds
(b) Vertebrate hearts
(c) Tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita
(d) Tubers of sweet potato and potato.
(i) Differences between analogous structure and homologous structure are as follows
Analogous structures Homologous structures
These have different basic plan and origin. These have similar basic plan and origin.
These are adapted to perform same functions. These are adapted to perform different functions.

These confirm convergent evolution, e.g. eye These confirm divergent evolution, e.g. limbs of man and
of Octopus and man. whale.
(ii) Analogous organs
(a) Wings of butterfly and birds.
(b) Tubers of sweet potato and potato.
35. How do homologous organs represent divergent evolution? Explain with the help of a suitable example.
• Homologous organs as divergent evolution:
• Homology is the relation among the organs of different groups of organisms, that show similarity in the basic
structure and embryonic development, but have different functions.
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• Homology in organs indicates common ancestry. It is based on divergent evolution.

• When due to different needs, some structures develop differently, the condition is called divergent evolution.
This results in the formation of homologous organs. Examples of homology in plants and animals are as
follows
36. Differentiate between homology and analogy. Give one example of each.
Or
Differentiate between divergent and convergent evolution. Give one example of each.
Differences between homology and analogy are as follows
Homology/Divergent evolution Analogy/Convergent evolution
Homology is based on divergent evolution. Analogy is based on convergent evolution.
Structures are anatomically similar but functionally different. Structures are anatomically different but
functionally similar.
e.g. in animals, forelimbs of whales, bats and cheetah. In plants, thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of Cucurbita.
e.g. in animals, wings of butterfly and birds. In plants, tubers of sweet potato and potato
37. (i) Differentiate between analogy and homology giving one example each of plant and. animal, respectively.
(ii) How are they considered as evidence in support of evolution?
(ii)
• Homology and analogy show the similarities and differences among the organisms of today and those existed
years ago. These evidences come from the comparative study of external and internal structure.
• These can be determined by the following types
• Homology in organs indicates common ancestry.
• It is based on divergent evolution. When due to different needs, some morphologically similar structures
develop differently, to perform different functions, the condition is called divergent evolution. This results in
the formation of homologous organs.
• Analogy had developed due to the convergent evolution where different structures evolved for the same
function and have morphologically dissimilar structures. These are called analogous organs
38. State a reason for the increased population of dark coloured moths coinciding with the loss of lichens (on
tree bark) during industrialisation period in England.
• The increase in dark population of moths was due to industrial melanism.
• After industrialisation, dark-winged moths became more than white-winged moths.
• This is because tree trunks covered by lichens became dark due to the air pollution during industrialisation.
• White-winged moths fail to camouflage and thus, decreased in number, whereas dark-winged moths were
able to escape predation.
39. Anthropogenic actions hasten evolution. Explain with the help of suitable example.

Or

With the help of any two suitable examples explain the effect of anthropogenic actions on organic evolution.

Or Chemical insectisides/pesticides/antibiotics etc. remain useful only for a limited time. Explain concerning
evolution with a suitable example.

Human activities, i.e. anthropogenic actions are found to enhance evolution.

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For example,
(i) Excessive use of DDT as a fertiliser in crops resulted in the evolution of DDT resistant mosquitoes.
When DDT was used first time, many mosquitoes died, but few survived.
Survived mosquitoes showed resistance to DDT and reproduced even in the presence of DDT.
Offsprings produced by these mosquitoes were also resistant to DDT. The survival of the species and thus evolvement
of resistance species is due to mutation.
Hence, DDT is not effective on mosquito population today.
(ii) Similarly, evolution of antibiotic resistant microbes has occurred due to the overuse of antibiotics.
Adaptive Radiation
40. (i) Explain adaptive radiation with the help of suitable example.
(ii) Cite an example where more than one adaptive radiation have occurred in an isolated geographical area.
Name the type of evolution your example depicts and state why is it so named?
The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating
to other areas or habitat is called adaptive radiation, e.g. alterations in beaks of finches on Galapagos Islands.
(ii) An example where more than one adaptive radiation have occurred in an isolated geographical area is Australian
marsupials, where a number of different marsupials evolved from an ancestral stock but within the isolated Australian
island and all of them got adapted to different habitats, e.g. Tasmanian wolf (marsupial) and placental wolf (placental
mammals).
The above cited example depicts convergent evolution as these marsupials show development of similar adaptive
functional structures in unrelated groups of organisms.
41. “Australian marsupials exhibit adaptive radiation but they along with placental mammals show
convergent evolution”. Justify the statement.
The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating
to other areas of geography (habitats) is called adaptive radiation, e.g., Australian marsupials.
A number of marsupials, each different from the other evolved from an ancestral stock, but all within the Australian
island continent.
Adaptive radiation can be referred to as convergent evolution, when more than one adaptive radiation appeared to
have occurred in an isolated geographical area (representing different habitats).
Similarly as Australian marsupials, placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation in evolving into
varieties of such placental mammals each of which appears to be similar to a corresponding marsupials, e.g., placental
wolf and Tasmanian wolf-marsupial.
Hence, Australian marsupials and placental mammals show convergent evolution.
42. Mention the specific geographical area where the variety of beaked Darwin’s finches were found? How
did Darwin visit the particular geographical area?
Ans: Galapagos island.
Through sea voyage in a sailing ship called H.M.S. Beagle.
43. Explain adaptive radiation with the help of a suitable example.
Or
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What do you infer from the resemblance between flying squirrel and flying phalanger with reference to their
evolution.
Or
Explain adaptive radiation and convergent evolution by taking example of some of Australian marsupials and
Australian placental mammals.
Or
Australian marsupials and placental mammals are suitable examples of adaptive radiation and convergent
evolution. Explain by giving reasons.
• Adaptive radiation is the process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a
point and radiating to other habitats.
• Darwin went to Galapagos Island and observed that there were many varieties of finches in the same island.
• All the varieties evolved on the island itself.
• Darwin suggested that after originating from a common ancestral seed eating stock, the finches must have
radiated to different geographical areas and undergone adaptive changes in their beaks, thus enabling some to
become insectivorous while the other remained herbivore and ate seeds.
Or
• Many Australian marsupials, each different from the other, e.g. kangaroo, sugar glider, etc., evolved from a
common ancestral stock, but all within the Australian Island continent.
• When more than one adaptive radiation occur in an isolated geographical area, it can be called as convergent
evolution.
• Australian placental mammals also show adaptive radiation in evolving into varieties of such placental mammals,
each one of which appears similar to a corresponding marsupial, e.g. placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf, anteater
and numbat, flying squirrel and flying phalanger, etc.
43. Explain the interpretation of Charles Darwin who observed a variety of small black birds on Galapagos
Islands.
Or
How did Darwin explain adaptive radiation? Give another example exhibiting adaptive radiation.
• Darwin found the variations in the beaks of small black birds on Galapagos Island due to their adaptation to
different food habits.
• Darwin explained
(a) All the varieties must have evolved within the same island itself. The original finches were seed-eating. From
them, some arose with altered beaks as insectivorous and some as vegetarian finches.
(b) This process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and radiating
to other habitats is called adaptive radiation.
Biological Evolution
44. According to Darwinian theory, the rate of appearance of new forms is linked to their life cycles. Explain.
Darwin’s theory states that the fitness of an organism is measured by its reproductive ability. The appearance of new
forms is linked to the lifespan of an organism.
The greater lifespan of an individual indicates that the more it can reproduce and hence, greater new forms would
appear. This can be observed in the development of dark-winged moths due to industrial melanism.
45. Enumerate the key concepts in the evolution theory of Darwin.
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The two key concepts of Darwin’s theory of evolution are:

Branching Descent
Natural Selection
Branching Descent- It is the process in which new species originate from a single ancestor. They became adapted to
the new environment through reproductive isolation. For eg., Darwin’s finches which evolved from a single grain
eater species.
Natural Selection- In this process, the variations in an individual facilitate better survival of species. They reproduce
in large numbers. These variations are passed on to successive generations which help them to survive in the changing
environmental conditions. For eg., few giraffes have long necks while others have short necks. If the low-lying shrubs
are eliminated for some reason, the giraffes with short necks would be replaced by giraffes with long necks.
46. (i) Natural selection operates when nature-selects for fitness. Explain,
(ii) The rate of appearance of new forms is linked to the lifespan of an organism. Explain with the help of a
suitable example.
(i) The members of a population vary in characteristics even though they look similar. The population usually
increases exponentially but the natural resources are limited leading to more competition. The individuals, which are
fit and can adapt themselves are able to survive. They grow, reproduce and survive. This is called natural selection
as stated by Darwin.
47. Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian theory of evolution.
Explain each concept with the help of a suitable example.
The two key concepts of Darwinian theory of natural selection are as follows :
Branching Descent:
Members of a population vary in characteristics, even though they look superficially similar. Most of these variations
are heritable.
Accumulation of variations over a period of time through a number of generations leads to change in population
characteristics.
e.g., Evolution of marsupials of Australia derived from a common ancestor.
Natural selection : Nature selects those individuals who are fit in the environment. Fitness according to Darwin is
reproductive fitness.
Those who adapt better to the habitat reproduce more and their progeny consists of more fit individuals, who are
selected by nature, e.g. Industrial melanism
48. Name the scientist who influenced Darwin and how?
• Darwin was influenced by Thomus Robert Malthus, a British economist. He put forward a theory of
population growth.
• According to Thomas Robert Malthus
✓ Natural resources are limited, Populations are stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation, members of a
population vary in characteristics(in fact no two individuals are alike) even though they look superficially
similar, most of variations are inherited etc.
✓ Theoretically, population size will grow exponentially if everybody reproduced maximally (this fact can be
seen in a growing bacterial population) and the fact that population sizes in reality are limited, means that
there had been competition for resources.
✓ Only some survived and grew at the cost of others that could not flourish.
• Thus the novelty and brilliant insight of Darwin was:
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✓ Variations, which are heritable and which make resources utilization better for few (adopted to habitat
better) will enable only those to reproduce and leave more progeny.
✓ Hence for a period of time, over many generations, survivors will leave more progeny and there would
be a change, in population characteristics and hence new forms appear to arise.
Mechanism of Evolution
49. Write the basis of origin of variations in organisms as described by Hugo de Vries.
Mutations are the basis of origin of variations in an organism according to Hugo de Vries.
50. Mention how is mutation theory of Hugo de Vries different from Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
Or
According to Hugo de Vries what is saltation?
• Hugo de Vries theory states that evolution occurs due to single step large mutations called saltation which
leads to new species formation or speciation.
• Darwin’s theory states that the speciation occurs gradually through a number of generations, with the
accumulation of minor variations.
51. List the two characteristics of mutation that help in explaining evolution.
According to mutation theory of evolution
• Mutations are random, inheritable and appear in all conceivable directions.
• Same type of mutations can appear in number of individuals of a species.
52. State the Hardy-Weinberg principle.
• The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that in a large population, the allele frequencies and the genotype
frequencies are constant from one generation to the other.
• The principle can be explained by the simple equation: (p+q)2 = p2 +q2 + 2pq = 1 Where, p = frequency of
allele A q = frequency of allele a p2 = frequency of individual AA q2 = frequency of individual aa 2pq =
frequency of individual Aa.
53. How does genetic variation help in evolution?
• Genetic variation is important in evolution because it allows natural selection to increase or decrease the
frequency of alleles already present in the population.
• These variations enable a few individuals to adapt to the environment.
54. Which law states that the sum of allelic frequencies in a population is constant? List the five factors that
influence the law.
The law is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The five factors influencing the law are:
Genetic drift
Mutation
Gene flow
Genetic Recombination
Natural Selection
55. According to the Hardy-Weinberg principle, the allele frequency of a population remains constant. How
do you interpret the change of frequency of alleles in a population?
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According to Hardy-Weinberg principle, the change in frequency of alleles in a population shows the extent of
evolutionary change.
56. With the help of an algebraic equation, how did Hardy-Weinberg explain that in a given population the
frequency of occurrence of alleles of a gene is supposed to remain the same through generations ?
• Hardy-Weinberg’s principle states that allele frequencies in a population are stable. They remain constant
from generation to generation. The gene pool also remains constant. This is called genetic equilibrium.
• Thus, according to this principle, the sum total of all the allelic frequencies in a population is always 1.
• Suppose in a diploid individual, p and q represent the frequency of allele A and allele a, respectively.
• The probability that an allele A with a frequency of P appears on both the chromosomes of a diploid organism
in the p². Similarly of aa is q², of Aa is 2pq. Hence, p² + 2pq + q² = 1.
• The difference measured in the expected values of frequencies, indicates the extent of evolutionary change.
57. p² + 2pq + q² = 1. Explain this algebraic equation on the basis of Hardy-Weinberg’s principle.
Answer:
• The equation p² + 2pq + q² = 1, mathematically represents the Hardy-Weinberg’s principle.
• It is used to calculate the genetic variations among a population at equilibrium.
• Principle It states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and remain constant from generation to
generation.
• In this equation,
p – frequency of allele A
q – frequency of allele a
p² – frequency of AA (homozygous) individuals in a population
q² – frequency of aa (homozygous) individuals
2pq – frequency of Aa (heterozygous) individuals
• Also, the sum total of all the allelic frequencies is equal to 1.
• If the p and q allele frequencies are known, then the frequencies of three genotypes can be calculated using the
Hardy-Weinberg’s equation.
• This equation can be used to measure the differences in frequencies of observed genotype measured from the
frequencies predicted by the equation.
• The disturbance in genetic equilibrium results in evolution, thus the presence of any difference indicates the
extent of evolutionary change.
58. How would the gene flow or genetic drift affect the population in which either of them happen to take
place?
If gene flow or genetic drift takes place in a population, the effect would be:
• Gene flow/Gene migration: Due to migration, new genes or alleles are added to the population and are lost
from the old population thus, changing the frequencies of alleles in both populations. When migration occurs
multiple times it is termed as gene flow.
• Genetic drift: Changes occurring in allele frequencies by chance is called genetic drift. Due to changes in
allele frequency in new population, some different species are formed. This is called founder effect and the
original drifted population is called founder.
59. When does a species become founder to cause founder effect?
• Founders effect occurs due to the change in allele frequency of a population.
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• When the change in the allele frequency is very different in the new sample of population, so that they become
a different species.
• The original drifted population becomes founder and the effect is called founder effect.
60. Describe the three different ways by which natural selection can affect the frequency of a heritable trait in
a population.
Or
Explain the three ways in which natural selection operates on different traits in nature.
The three different ways by which natural selection can affect the frequency of a heritable trait in a population are
(i) Stabilisation: It results in more number of individuals acquiring the mean character value, i.e. variation is much
reduced.
(ii) Directional change: It results in more individuals acquiring value other than mean character value, i.e. the peak
shifts towards one direction.
(iii) Disruptive selection: In this, more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution
curve, i.e. two peaks are formed at periphery.
A brief account of Evolution
61. Coelacanth was caught in South Africa. State the significance of discovery of Coelacanth in the
evolutionary history of vertebrates.
Or
State the significance of Coelacanth in evolution.
Or
Coelacanth was caught in 1938 in South Africa. Why is it very significant in the evolutionary history of
vertebrates?
• The discovery of Coelacanth (lobefins), the first amphibian is significant as it proved that amphibians have
evolved from fish-like organisms.
• Lobefins were the ancestors of modern day frogs and salamanders.
62. (i) The plant forms ferns and conifers are most related to.
(ii) The nearest ancestors of flowering plants.
(iii) The most primitive group of plants.
(iv) Common ancestry of Psilophyton provides to.
(v) The common ancestor of Psilophyton and seed ferns.
(vi) The common ancestors of mosses and tracheophytes.
(i) Psilophyton
(ii) Seed ferns,
(iii) Chlorophyte ancestor
(iv) Ferns, conifers and seeds ferns
(v) Tracheophyte ancestor
(vi) Chlorophyte ancestor.
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63. Name the first plant and animal that invaded land.

Plants:Mosses and liverworts (during Ordovician period of Palaeozoic era)

Animal: lobe fins evolved to early amphibians

64. Name the ancestors of bryophytes. In which geological time period did bryophytes appear on earth?

Chlorophyte ancestor, Cenozoic Era, Tertiary Period

65. Name the period of geological history when lycopod flourished.

Jurassic period of Mesozoic Era

66. Rearrange the following in an ascending order of evolutionary tree: Reptiles, salamanders, lobefins, frogs.

Lobefins, Frogs, Salmanders, Reptiles

67. Name the descendants of seed fern.

Ans: Cycads

68. Name the ancestor of modern amphibian. lobefins

69. Which period is known as the age of amphibians?

Ans: The carboniferous period

70. Which period is known as the age of amphibians?

Ans: The Jurassic period

71. What are the major divisions of history of earth?

The geological time scale divides up the history of earth into 4 eras:

Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras

72. What were the first mammals like? Ans: Shrews

73. Give the scientific term to the fish-like reptiles. Ans: Ichythyosaurs(200 mya)

74. Name the two forms of extinct reptiles that evolved from synapsids. Ans: Polycosaurs, Therapsids

75. Name the immediate reptilian (extinct) ancestor of mammals. Ans: Therapsids

76. Name the biggest land reptiles: Ans: Tyrannosaurus rex (Dinosaurus)

77. Name the living ancestor of birds and different type of reptiles living today: Ans: Sauropsids

78. What is the significance of Archaeopteryx in the study of organic evolution?

• It provides fossil evidence for the evolutionary link between dinosaurs and modern birds.
• It is a transitional fossil , showing a blend of traits from two different groups, birds and reptiles.
• It possessed birdlike characteristics such as feathers and wings, while also having reptilian features like a
long bony tail, teeth and claws on its wings.

79.
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Era Period Organisms

Coenozoic A Modern Man,Mammals, Birds, The rise of monocot

B Tertiary Rise of first primate, Angiosperm

Mesozoic C Gingko, Gnetales

D Jurassic Conifers, Cycads, Reptiles

Paleozoic E Early reptiles(extinct)

F Silurian Psilophyton

Ans: A : Quaternary B : Cenozoic C: Cretaceous D: Mesozoic E: Carboniferous F: Paleozoic

Origin & Evolution of Man

81. Write the names of the following:
(i) A 15 mya primate that was ape-like
(ii) A 2 mya primate that lived in East African grasslands.
Answer:
(i) Dryopithecus (ii) Australopithecus
82. Name the common ancestor of the great apes and man.

Dryopithecus

83. Write the probable differences in eating habits of Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
The probable differences in eating habit of Homo habilis and Homo erectus are as follows
• Homo habilis They did not eat meat.
• Homo erectus They probably ate meat.
84. Study the ladder of human evolution given above and answer the following questions.
(i) Where did Australopithecus evolve?
(ii) Write the scientific name of Java man.
(i) Australopithecus evolved in East African grasslands.
(ii) Java man -Homo erectus.
85. Give the scientific term of first human-like ancestor. Ans: Homo habilis

86. Name the ancestor of Homo habilis. Ans: Australopithecus

87. By what Latin name the first hominid was known? Ans: Homo habilis

88. Mention the evolutionary significance of the following organisms:

(i) Shrews
(ii) Lobefins
(iii) Homo habilis
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(iv) Homo erectus

The evolutionary significance of the given organisms are as follows
(i) Shrews They are the first mammals. These were long tailed, insectivorous, squirrel-like organisms. They gave rise
to primitive primates. For example, leones and tarsiers at the beginning of the Palaeocene era.
(ii) Lobefins: They are the first amphibians. Modem day frogs and salamanders have evolved from them.
(iii) Homo habilis: The first human-like primates who lived in Africa about 2 million years ago. They had brain
capacity of 700 cc. They are also called as handy man as they were first and the most skillful tool makers.
(iv) Homo erectus : They appeared after Homo habilis, about 1.7 million years ago. They had large brain capacities,
i.e. 800-1100 cc and were omnivores.
89. Name the first human-like hominid. Mention his food habit and brain capacity.
Homo habilis were the first human-like hominid. They probably did not consume meat and their brain capacity was
about 650-850cc.
90. Rearrange the following in increasing order of evolution
Gnetales; Ferns; Zosterophyllum; Ginkgo.
Answer:
The increasing order of evolution in plants is as follows: Zcsterophyllum – Ferns – Ginkgo – Gnetales
91. Name the ancestors of a man based on the features given below.
(i) Human-like, meat-eater with 900 cc brain, lived in Java.
(ii) More human-like with brain size 1400 cc, lived in Central Asia, used hides and buried their dead.
(iii) Human-like, vegetarian, with brain capacity between 650-800 cc.
(iv) Man-like primate, that existed about 15 mya. Fossils found in Tanzania.
Answer:
(i) Homo erectus
(ii) Homo sapienes neanderthalensis
(iii) Homo habilis
(iv) Ramapithecus
92. (i) Write two differences between Homo erectus and Homo habilis.
(ii) Rearrange the following from early to late geological periods:
Carboniferous, Silurian, Jurassic.
Answer:
Differences between Homo erectus and Homo habilis
Homo erectus Homo habilis
Origin period is 1.5 mva Origin period is 1.2-1.5 mya
Brain capacity 900 cc meat eater, First human like beings, brain capacity 650-
Fossils found in Java. 800 cc. herbivorous
Fossils found in Hast Africa.
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(ii) The correct sequence from early to late geological period is Silurian → Carboniferous →Jurassic.
93. Write the characteristics of Ramapithecus, Dryopithecus and Neanderthal man.
Characteristics of Ramapithecus
• Ramapithecus survived about 14-15 million years ago during late Miocene to Pliocene.
• Ramapithecus walked erect on its hindlegs.
• They were similar to ape, which lived on the tree tops, but also walked on the ground.
• They ate hard nuts and seeds like modem man. Their jaws and teeth were similar to humans.
Characteristics of Dryopithecus
• They lived about 15 million years ago.
• Legs and heels indicate that Dryopithecus was of a semi-erect posture and Knuckle walker.
• Dryopithecus was arboreal and herbivorous, who ate soft fruits and leaves.
• Dryopithecus had large canines and incisors.
Characteristics of Neanderthal man
• Neanderthal man existed in the late Pleistocene period.
• Neanderthal walked upright with bipedal movement.
• The face was slightly prognathous and had low brows, receding jaws and high domed heads.
• The cranial capacity of Neanderthal man was about 1300-1600cc and of average 1450cc. Their jaws were
deep with no chin and skull bones were thick.
94.
(i) In which part of the world, the Neanderthal man lived and when?
(ii) Mention the advancement which they showed over Homo erectus ?
• The Neanderthal man lived near Eastern and Central Asia between 1,00000 to 40 ,000 years back.
Advancement They showed:
• More brain capacity
• Use of hides to cover body
• Burial of the dead
95.
(i) Name the primates that lived about 15 million years ago. List their characteristic features.
(ii) (a) Where was the man-like animal found?
(b) Write the order in which Neanderthals, Homo habilis and Homo erectus appeared on the earth. State the
brain capacity of each of them.
(c) When did modern man Homo sapiens appear on this planet?
(i) Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus are the primates that lived about 15 million years ago.
Their characteristics are
They were hairy.
They walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
Dryopithecus was more ape-like, while Ramapithecus was more man-like.
(ii) (a) The man-like animal was found in East African grasslands.
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(b) They appeared in the following order Homo habilis → Homo erectus → Neanderthal. They had brain capacities
of 650-800 cc, 900 cc and 1400 cc, respectively.
(c) During ice age between 75000-10000 years ago, modern man Homo sapiens appeared on this planet.