Syllabus
Feedback: Feedback concepts, feedback connection types, Voltage series
feedback, Gain stability with feedback.
Positive feedback: Barkhaunsen's criteria for oscillation. Sinusoidal
Oscillators - RC Phase Shift oscillator, Wien Bridge oscillator, Hartley,
Colpitts, and Crystal oscillator (qualitative approach).
Feedback concepts
The phenomenon of feeding a portion of the output signal back to the
input circuit is known as feedback. The effect results in dependence
between the output and the input and effective control can be obtained in
the working of the circuit. Feedback is of two types.
● Positive Feedback
● Negative Feedback
In positive feedback, the
feedback energy(voltage or
currents), is in- phase with
the input signal and thus
aids it. Positive feedback
increases gain of the
amplifier also increases
distortion, noise and
instability.
Negative Feedback: In
negative feedback, the feedback
energy (voltage or current), is
out of phase with the input signal
and thus opposes it. Negative
feedback reduces the gain of the
amplifier. It also reduces
distortion, noise, and instability.
This feedback increases
bandwidth and improves input
and output impedances. Due to
these advantages, negative
feedback is frequently used in
amplifiers.
Comparison Between Positive and Negative Feed Back
Negative Feedback Positive Feedback
Feedback energy is out phase with Feedback energy is in phase with
their input signal the input signal.
Gain of the amplifier decreases Gain of the amplifier increases
Gain stability increases Gain stability decreases
Noise and distortion decreases. Noise and distribution increases.
Increase the band width Decreases bandwidth
Used in amplifiers Used in Oscillators
FEEDBACK CONNECTION TYPES
There are four basic ways of connecting the feedback signal. Both voltage
and current can be fed back to the input either in series or parallel.
Specifically, there can be:
1. Voltage-series feedback.
2. Voltage-shunt feedback.
3. Current-series feedback.
4. Current-shunt feedback.
In the list above, voltage refers to connecting the output voltage as input
to the feedback network; current refers to tapping off some output current
through the feedback network. Series refers to connecting the feedback
signal in series with the input signal voltage; shunt refers to connecting
the feedback signal in shunt (parallel) with an input current source.
Series feedback connections tend to increase the input resistance,
whereas shunt feedback connections tend to decrease the input
resistance. Voltage feedback tends to decrease the output impedance,
whereas current feedback tends to increase the output impedance.
Typically, higher input and lower output impedances are desired for most
cascade amplifiers. Both of these are provided using the voltage-series
feedback connection.
Voltage-Series Feedback Figure below shows the voltage-series
feedback connection with a part of the output voltage fed back in series
with the input signal, resulting in an overall gain reduction.
If there is no feedback (Vf = 0), the voltage gain of the amplifier stage is
If a feedback signal Vf is connected in series with the input, then
The above equation shows that, the gain with feedback (A f) is the
amplifier gain (A) reduced by a factor of (1+Aβ)
Oscillators :
An oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodic waveform on its output
with only the dc supply voltage as an input. An amplifier that uses
positive feedback and without any external input signal generates an
output waveform of the desired frequency. A repetitive input signal is not
required except to synchronize oscillations in some applications. The
output voltage can be either sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal, depending on
the type of oscillator.
Classification of Oscillators :
1. Based on operating Principle
(a) Negative Resistance effect oscillators
(b)Feedback oscillators
2. Based on waveforms
(a) Sinusoidal oscillators
(b)Relaxation oscillators
3. Based on frequency generation
(a) AF oscillators
(b)RF oscillators
(c) UHF oscillators
(d)Microwave oscillators
4. According to the circuit employed
(a) LC oscillators
(b)RC oscillators
Barkhausen’s criteria for oscillator
The condition |Aβ|=1 is known as the Barkhausen criteria for sustained
oscillation. It implies
(1) Magnitude of the loop gain Aβ = 1
(2) Phase shift over the loop = 0 0r 360 degrees.
By applying this criterion, we can even find the values of amplifier
parameters, like gain, required for setting in oscillations.
Amplifier Gain = Vo /Vin = Avf = A / (1 + Aβ)
Avf = Voltage gain with feedback
A= voltage gain without feedback or open loop gain.
If β is adjusted such that βA = -1 ( unity gain with phase shift of 180 0), the
gain Avf tends to become infinity. If |βA| slightly more than unity, the
circuit becomes self oscillatory with no input i.e, Vin = 0.
Sinusoidal Oscillators
The name sinusoidal oscillator itself indicates that this oscillator produces
sine wave oscillations.
There are three basic types of oscillators such as RC oscillator, LC
oscillator and crystal oscillator.
1. RC oscillators: They use a resistance-Capacitance network to
determine the oscillator frequency. They are suitable for low (audio range)
and moderate frequency applications (5Hz to 1MHz). They are two
prominent RC oscillators they are RC phase shift oscillator and Wien
bridge oscillator
2. LC oscillators: Here, inductors and capacitors are used in either series
or parallel to determine the frequency. They are more suitable for radio
frequency (1 to 500 MHz). Two important LC oscillators are Hartley
oscillator and Colpitts oscilaltor
3. Crystal oscillator: Like LC oscillators, it is suitable for radio frequency
applications. But it has a very high degree of stability and accuracy as
compared to other oscillators.
RC- Phase shift oscillator:
The RC phase shift oscillator uses three RC sections in its feedback path
as shown in figure above. Each RC section produces 60 0 phase shifts.
Hence the total phase shift is 3*60= 1800.
To satisfy Barkhausen’s criteria, the amplifier path must introduce 180 0
phase shift in the forward path. Thus, a total phase shift of around the
loop becomes 3600. The op-amp in the inverting mode is used as an
amplifier in the forward path to produce 180 0 phase shift (the op-amp may
be replaced with transistor-based CE-amplifier also). The output of the
amplifier is given to the feedback network. The output of the feedback
network will drive the amplifier.
The feedback factor is β = Vf / Vo.
The frequency of oscillations is given by
o = 1 / RC6 rad/sec or fo= 1 / 2RC6 Hz.
The feedback path gain β(ωo) = - 1/29 ;
For oscillation to occur,|β| > 1/29, and the feedback path introduces 180 0
phase shift.
To satisfy Barkhausens condition |Aβ| = 1,|A|=1/|β| = 29 . Thus the gain
of the amplifier must be 29 to have the oscillations according to
Barkhausen’s condition.
If we are using inverting amplifier using op-amp, then the gain is given by
A = - Rf/ R = 29. Therefore Rf > 29 R
Wien Bridge Oscillator
Another type of sinusoidal feedback oscillator is the Wien-bridge
oscillator. A fundamental part of the Wien-bridge oscillator is a lead-lag
circuit like that shown in Figure. Resistors R 1 and R 2 and capacitors C 1
and C 2 form the frequency-adjustment elements, and resistors R 3 and R
4 form part of the feedback path. The op-amp output is connected as the
bridge input at points a and c.
The bridge circuit output at points b and d is the input to the op-amp.
Neglecting loading effects of the op-amp input and output impedances,
the analysis of the bridge circuit results in
If, the values are R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C, the resulting oscillator
frequency is
Thus a ratio of R3 to R4 greater than 2 will provide sufficient loop gain for
the circuit to oscillate at the frequency f0
The 0° phase-shift condition is met when the frequency is fr because the
phase shift through the lead-lag circuit is 0° and there is no inversion from
the noninverting (+) input of the op-amp to the output.
The unity-gain condition in the feedback loop is met when A = 3. This
offsets the 1/3 attenuation of the lead-lag circuit, thus making the total
gain around
the positive feedback loop equal to 1. To achieve a closed loop gain of 3,
R1 = 2R2
The Colpitts Oscillator
One basic type of resonant circuit feedback oscillator is the Colpitts
Oscillator which uses an LC circuit in the feedback loop to provide the
necessary phase shift and to act as a resonant filter that passes only the
desired frequency of oscillation.
The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant frequency of the
LC circuit and is established by the values of C1, C2, and L according to
the formula:
where CT is the total capacitance. Because the capacitors effectively
appear in series around the tank circuit, the total capacitance (CT) is
The Hartley Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts except that the feedback
circuit consists of two series inductors and a parallel capacitor as shown in
Figure.
The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant frequency of the
LC circuit and is established by the values of L1, L2, and C according to
the formula:
where LT is the total inductance. LT = L1+L2
Crystal Oscillator
A crystal oscillator is basically a tuned-circuit oscillator using a
piezoelectric crystal as a resonant tank circuit. The crystal (usually quartz)
has a greater stability in holding constant at whatever frequency the
crystal is originally cut to operate. Crystal oscillators are used whenever
great stability is required, such as in communication transmitters and
receivers.
A quartz crystal (one of a number of crystal types) exhibits the property
that when mechanical stress is applied across one set of its faces, a
difference of potential develops across the opposite faces. This property of
a crystal is called the piezoelectric effect. Similarly, a voltage applied
across one set of faces of the crystal causes mechanical distortion in the
crystal shape.
When alternating voltage is applied to a crystal,
mechanical vibrations are set up these vibrations
having a natural resonant frequency dependent on the
crystal.
An op-amp can be used in a crystal oscillator as shown
in Figure below. The crystal is connected in the series-
resonant path and operates at the crystal series-
resonant frequency.